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Skeletal  Measurements    and   Observa 
tions  on  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo 
with  Comparisons  from  other 
Eskimo  Groups 


BY 

I 

ERNEST  WILLIAM    HAWKES 


THESIS   PRESENTED  TO   THE   FACULTY  OF  THE    GRADUATE 

SCHOOL  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  IN 

PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQURIEMENTS 

FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  PH.D. 


PRESS  OF 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  COMPANY 
LANCA51 ER,  PA. 

19 10 


EXCHANGE 


o 

[Reprinted  from  the  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST,  Vol.   18,  No.  2,  April-June,  1916] 


SKELETAL   MEASUREMENTS  AND   OBSERVATIONS   OF 
THE  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO  WITH  COMPARI 
SONS  WITH  OTHER  ESKIMO  GROUPS 

BY  ERNEST  WILLIAM  HAWKES 

PREFACE 

PR  the  past  six  years  the  author  has  made  an  intensive  study 
of  that  very  interesting  people,  the  Eskimo.  Between  three 
and  four  years  of  this  time  have  been  spent  in  work  among 
them,  in  Bering  strait  and  on  the  Yukon  river  in  Alaska/,  and  in 
Labrador  and  Hudson  bay  in  the  east.  Although  the  author  has 
been  principally  interested  in  the  ingenious  culture  of  these  masters 
of  environment,  the  opportunity  for  physical  observation  has  not 
been  neglected.  Consequently,  when  an  opportunity  offered  for 
filling  in  a  gap  in  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  Eskimo,  through 
the  presence  of  a  very  complete  and  fair-sized  skeletal  collection 
from  Point  Barrow,  Alaska,  in  the  Wistar  Institute  of  Anatomy  in 
Philadelphia,  which  had  been  left  untouched  since  its  collection  in 
1898,  the  author  was  very  glad  to  supplement  his  information  on 
this  subject. 

A  year  was  spent  on  the  material  with  the  following  results. 
The  collection  was  measured  and  its  general  characteristics  out 
lined  and  comparisons  instituted  with  other  Eskimo  tribes.  Later, 
the  comparison  may  be  extended  to  include  the  Indians  bordering 
on  the  Eskimo. 

The  author  wishes  to  thank  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  for 
its  cordial  support  in  this  work,  and  the  Director  of  the  Wistar  Insti 
tute  of  Anatomy  for  generous  accommodations  during  the  pursuit 
of  the  same.  He  also  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to 
Mr.  Ralph  Linton  for  the  measurements  of  the  long  bones,  and  much 
helpful  assistance  in  the  completion  of  the  work. 

203 


448351 


204  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

INTRODUCTION 

^  The  ^Eskimo  present  the  unique  spectacle  of  a  people  extending 
for  five  thousand  miles  across  the  entire  northern  border  of  a  con 
tinent,  living  under  the  same  climatic  environment,  and  practically 
homogeneous  throughout  in  customs  and  speech.  Consequently, 
they  offer  a  problem  which  is  not  only  sectional  but  general,  and 
any  light  which  may  be  thrown  upon  their  development,  particu 
larly  the  physical  side,  is  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  general 
problem  of  the  relation  of  man  to  his  environment.  Although  the 
present  investigation  has  been  limited  to  local  and  racial  com 
parisons,  the  peculiar  situation  of  the  Eskimo  may  make  the  results 
suggestive  of  the  larger  problem. 

In  the  following  pages  we  have  concerned  ourselves  chiefly  with 
the  description  of  skeletal  material  from  a  hitherto  little-studied 
branch  of  this  people,  the  Alaskan  Eskimo.  The  collection  includes 
twenty-eight  crania,  male,  female,  adolescent,  and  infantile,  and 
three  skeletons,  brought  down  from  Point  Barrow,  at  the  extreme 
northern  point  of  Alaska,  in  1898  by  E.  A.  Mcllhenny.  The  Point 
Barrow  Eskimo,  as  will  be  remembered  from  Murdoch's1  report, 
possess  the  simple  Arctic  culture  characteristic  of  the  more  isolated 
tribes  of  the  central  and  eastern  Eskimo,  and  are  as  yet  unin 
fluenced  by  an  intermixture  of  Indian  customs  and  mythology,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  more  southerly  Alaskan  Eskimo  tribes.  Their 
isolation  has  also  preserved  the  purity  of  their  physical  type.  The 
only  possibilities  of  intermixture  are  with  the  Athapascan  tribes  of 
the  interior,  who  are  very  rarely  met  with  on  spring  hunting  trips 
into  the  interior,  and  from  whom  they  are  separated  by  inland 
Eskimo  tribes,  and  with  the  white  whalers,  whose  influence,  as 
Stefansson  has  shown,  has  been  of  such  short  duration  that  it  has 
not  affected  the  native  type.  Furthermore,  they  are  separated 
from  the  Mackenzie  river  Eskimo,  the  next  division  to  the  east, 
by  some  two  hundred  miles  of  uninhabited  coast  line,  and  only 
come  in  contact  with  them  at  infrequent  intervals  for  trade  at  Barter 
island,  or  on  whaling  trips. 

1  John  Murdoch,  "Ethnological  Results  of  the  Point  Barrow  Expedition"  (Ninth 
Annual  Report  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pp.  1-441.  Washington,  1892). 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      2O5 

Thus,  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo  have  not  been  subject  to 
Athapascan  influence,  like  the  interior  Alaskan  tribes,  nor  to  the 
mixture  of  Northwest  Coast  and  Russian  customs  present  on  the 
Yukon,  nor  directly  to  the  strong  Siberian  influence  in  Bering  strait. 
Consequently,  they  offer  distinct  advantages  as  a  pure  Alaskan 
group. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  the  Southampton  island  Eskimo 
have  been  accepted  as  typical  of  the  central  group.  Their  situa 
tion  precludes  any  possibility  of  Indian  contact  and  they  very 
rarely  met  even  other  Eskimo  tribes.  Furthermore,  we  have  an 
excellent  intensive  physical  study  of  these  people  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka,1 
which  is  a  great  aid  in  comparison.  In  our  comparative  tables  we 
have  followed  the  accepted  routes  of  Eskimo  migration,  which 
appear  to  reveal  certain  well-defined  tendencies  in  physical  type  as 
well  as  culture. 

The  Eskimo  are  particularly  valuable  as  offering  a  fairly  constant 
racial  type  for  comparison  with  widely  different  Indian  tribes 
throughout  their  extent.  Their  physical  influence  on  two  Indian 
stocks  as  different  as  the  Athapascan  and  Algonkian  is  fully  as 
significant  as  their  cultural  influences.  Dr.  Boas  has  suggested 
the  strength  of  this  influence  in  the  east.2 

On  the  other  hand,  it  would  appear  from  our  investigation  that 
the  influence  of  the  Indian  on  the  Eskimo  type  in  Alaska,  at  least 
in  the  northern  section,  has  been  overestimated.  In  the  crania  avail 
able  we  find  that  the  majority  of  Alaskan  Eskimo  approximate  the 
central  type,  and  in  individuals  the  racial  characteristics,  as  the 
broad  face,  narrow  nose,  etc.,  are  as  strongly  developed  as  in  that 
area.  Possibly  the  superior  stature  of  the  western  group  may  be  as 
much  due  to  better  food,  clothing,  and  housing  conditions  as  to  an 
intermixture  with  Indian  tribes,  an  assumption  which  has  not  yet 
been  proven. 

Particular  attention  has  been  given  in  this  investigation  to 
sexual  differences  which  were  found  to  be  considerable.  We  find 

1  "Contribution  to  the  Anthropology  of  the  Central  and  Smith  Sound  Eskimo" 
(Anthropological  Papers  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Vol.  V.,  part  i). 

2  Franz  Boas,  "Physical  Types  of  the  Indians  of  Canada."     (Annual  Archaeolog 
ical  Report,  p.  88.     Ontario,  1905.) 


206  AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

that  the  exaggerated  features,  such  as  breadth  of  face  as  compared 
with  breadth  of  head,  on  which  particular  stress  has  been  laid,  are 
not  expressed  in  the  female,  but  are  a  characteristic  of  the  male, 
not  only  in  the  Alaskan  but  in  the  other  Eskimo  groups.  The 
general  tendency  is  for  the  male  to  reproduce  the  racial  type  in  an 
exaggerated  form.  Consequently,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  female 
measurements,  or  the  ignoring  of  sexual  differences,  as  in  Bessels' 
work,1  a  set  characteristic  has  been  accepted  as  a  racial  trait. 

In  dealing  with  the  mandible  we  have  followed  the  illuminating 
suggestions  of  Thompson  and  worked  out  the  indices  which  indicate 
the  leverage  of  the  jaw.  The  theory  of  the  comparative  shallow- 
ness  of  the  glenoid  fossa  in  the  Eskimo  being  the  result  of  the  rotary 
motion  of  the  mandible  and  the  food  used  by  them,  as  embodied  in 
the  recent  study  by  Knowles,2  has  also  been  considered  for  this 
group.  It  was  generally  found  to  hold  good  and  is  being  worked 
out  in  detail  for  later  publicat  on. 

The  crania  offered  examples  of  infantile,  adolescent,  and  adult 
forms  of  dentition,  for  which  both  dental  and  cusp 'formulae  have 
been  worked  out.  It  was  found  that  certain  primitive  character 
istics,  such  as  the  additional  cusp  of  the  third  molar,  and  the  meeting 
of  the  incisors  edge  to  edge,  were  present  in  this  group. 

The  skeletal  proportions  are  somewhat  larger  than  those  given 
by  Hrdlicka  for  the  Smith  sound  Eskimo,  but  the  form  is  as  typical. 
Certain  very  primitive  characteristics,  such  as  the  perforation  of 
the  olecranon  fossa  and  the  extreme  forward  curve  of  the  femur, 
were  noted  in  the  female  skeleton. 

INCREASE  IN  STATURE  AMONG  THE  WESTERN  ESKIMO 
The  Alaskan  Eskimo  are  a  taller  and  more  symmetrical  people 
than  their  brethren  of  the  central  and  eastern  districts.  They 
lack  that  appearance  of  stoutness  and  squatness  inherent  in  the 
eastern  stock,  and  for  proportion  and  development  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  they  do  not  compare  unfavorably  with  Indians 

1  Bessels,  Emil.      "Einige  Worte  iiber  die  Inuit  (Eskimo)  des  Smith  Sundes,  nebst 
Bemerkungen  iiber  Inuit  Schadel"  (Archiv  f.  Anthropologie,  VIII.,  1875). 

2  Knowles,  F.  H.  S.     "  The  Glenoid  Fossa  in  the  Skull  of  the  Eskimo."     (Canadian 
Geological  Survey,  Museum  Bulletin,  No.  9.) 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      2O/ 

and  whites.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  in  an  Alaskan  Eskimo  village 
several  men  who  are  six  feet  tall,  with  magnificent  shoulders  and 
arms  and  bodily  strength  in  proportion.  The  usual  height 
however  is  about  168  centimeters  for  men,  which  is  some  10  cm. 
above  the  height  of  the  eastern  Eskimo.  The  Central  Eskimo 
(Southampton  islanders),  according  to  Hrdlicka,  average  about 
162  cm.  in  height.  The  average  for  women  among  the  western 
Eskimo  is  158  cm.,  which  approximates  the  height  of  the  men  in 
the  Hudson  bay  region  (158  cm.,  Boas).  The  female  type  in  Alaska 
is  taller  and  slimmer  than  in  the  east,  and  the  width  of  the  face  is 
considerably  less.  Eskimo  women  of  large  stature  are  often  seen 
in  the  northern  section  of  Alaska.  The  individual  variation  here 
is  more  conspicuous  than  in  Labrador  or  Hudson  bay. 

Whether  these  changes  in  physical  type  in  the  west  are  due  to 
changed  conditions  or  to  intermixture  with  Indian  or  Asiatic  tribes 
is  an  open  question.  The  conditions  of  life  of  the  Eskimo  in  the 
west  are  appreciably  different.  They  occupy  permanent  villages 
of  comfortable  stone  and  wood  iglus,  as  opposed  to  the  shifting 
winter  snowhouse  and  summer  tent  of  the  eastern  group.  For 
hunting  game  on  the  water,  the  Western  Eskimo  has  for  the  most 
part  abandoned  the  kayak  for  the  larger  and  roomier  umiak  while 
most  of  the  hunting  on  the  sea  ice  and  land  is  done  on  foot  instead 
of  with  the  dog  sledge.  Long  distance  foot  races  form  one  of  their 
winter  sports,  and  the  boast  of  the  old  hunters  is  that  they  were 
able  in  their  prime  to  run  down  a  reindeer  after  an  all  day  chase 
through  deep  snow.  Consequently,  we  find  the  lower  limbs  much 
better  developed  here  than  we  do  further  east.  This  may  account 
in  part  for  the  increase  in  stature  in  the  west. 

The  rest  of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  long  limbs,  has  developed 
into  larger  proportions  in  the  west.  Better  food  and  clothing,  as 
well  as  better  housing,  may  have  assisted  here.  To  one  who  has 
seen  both  regions,  as  the  author  has  been  privileged  to  do,  there  can 
be  no  question  as  to  the  superior  environment  of  the  Western 
Eskimo.  One  coming  from  Alaska  to  Labrador  and  Hudson  bay 
is  struck  with  the  poverty  of  life  in  the  eastern  district,  the 
hazardous  food  supply,  and  the  scantiness  of  the  material  culture. 

14 


208  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

The  walrus,  still  abundant  in  Alaskan  waters,  have  largely  forsaken 
the  eastern  coast.  Whales  are  more  frequent  in  Arctic  Alaska, 
although  rapidly  growing  less,  than  in  Hudson  bay  as  the  number  of 
whaling  ships  might  testify.  There  is  no  such  tremendous  competi 
tion  by  white  sealers  and  fishers  in  the  west  as  obtains  on  the 
Labrador  coast.  Although  the  eastern  region  has  the  advantage 
in  wild  reindeer,  the  Alaskan  Eskimo  has  drawn  on  the  tame  herds 
of  his  cousin,  the  Chukchi,  since  early  times,  for  warm  clothing, 
and  now,  thanks  to  the  American  government,  has  herds  of  his 
own.  The  general  outlook  of  the  Eskimo  ,in  the  west  appears 
more  favorable,  and  his  condition  an  improvement  over  the  old 
home  region  of  Hudson  bay.  Consequently,  we  might  expect 
increased  stature  without  taking  into  account  a  possible  intermixture 
with  the  Indians  of  the  west,  which  is  difficult  of  proof. 

The  author  does  not  see  why  the  possibilities  of  intermixture 
with  Indian  tribes  are  any  greater  in  the  west  than  the  east.  So 
far  as  we  know,  the  Eskimo  have  been  in  contact  with  the  Indians 
in  the  east  as  long  as  in  the  west.  In  both  regions  there  has  been 
constant  warfare  and  a  deep-seated  and  ancient 'racial  antipathy. 
No  cases  of  intermixture  have  been  recorded,  although  there  is  a 
bare  possibility  of  an  intermixture  previous  to  historical  times.  It 
is  true  that  the  Alaskan  Eskimo,  from  the  Yukon  south,  have  bor 
rowed  much  of  Indian  customs  and  mythology,  but  even  here  the 
racial  type  is  well  preserved  and  the  boundary  sharply  marked. 
The  northern  Alaskan  Eskimo  have  more  intercourse  with  Siberia 
through  the  Diomede  islands  than  with  the  interior  Athapascan. 
A  very  ancient  trade  has  been  followed  by  a  considerable  inter 
mixture  of  blood  in  the  Bering  strait  region.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  Diomedes  take  their  descent  in  about  equal  proportions  from 
the  American  and  Asiatic  sides  of  the  strait.  Those  Eskimo  who 
have  penetrated  to  the  Asiatic  side  (the  Asiatic  Eskimo)  are  now 
bi-lingual  and  have  adopted  the  dress  and  habitations  of  the  Chukchi. 
The  amalgamation  of  these  peoples  is  now  nearly  complete,  the 
Eskimo  only  occupying  a  few  remaining  villages  on  the  Siberian 
shore.  Long  before  the  advent  of  the  white  man  in  these  parts, 
they  made  visits  in  company  to  the  American  side,  first  hostile,  and 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      2OQ 

later  in  the  way  of  trade.  Kotzebue  sound  was  the  ancient  trading 
place,  where  the  tribes  gathered  in  summer  in  large  numbers  from 
both  sides  of  the  strait.  It  is  in  this  section  that  we  find  the 
increase  in  stature  most  pronounced,  rather  than  on  the  Yukon  or 
in  the  extreme  south.  Consequently,  we  must  take  into  account 
the  possibility  of  intermixture  from  Siberia  as  well  as  from  the 
interior  of  Alaska,  in  considering  the  changes  in  physical  type  of  the 
Eskimo  in  the  west.  However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  these 
changes  have  not  been  sufficient  as  yet  to  overcome  the  main  features 
of  the  original  type. 

THE  ACTION  OF  THE  TEMPORAL  MUSCLES  ON  THE  SHAPE  OF  THE 

SKULL 

In  the  adult  male  crania  of  this  series  the  temporal  crest  is  well 
marked  and  very  high  (see  pi.  ix).  It  does  not  appear  so 
prominently  in. the  female  skulls  and  hardly  at  all  in  the  infantile 
and  adolescent  series.  The  extensive  plane  covered  by  the  temporal 
muscle  on  the  adult  skull  would  indicate  a  very  strong  development 
of  the  same. 

Arthur  Thompson,  in  his  paper  on  Man's  Cranial  Form,  has 
worked  out  the  possible  effects  of  the  lateral  pressure  exerted  by  the 
temporal  muscles  on  the  skull.  This  was  done  by  exerting  pressure 
by  means  of  fibers  of  silk  on  the  temporal  plane  of  an  artificial  skull 
inflated  with  air,  which  resulted  in  a  compensatory  increase  in  the 
height  and  length  of  the  skull.  The  experiment  suggested  that  the 
action  of  the  temporal  muscles  on  the  Eskimo  skull  was  similar. 

Hrdlicka  later  showed  that  the  effect  of  the  temporal  muscles 
on  the  infantile  skull  was  slight,  and,  as  the  articulations  became 
more  firm,  the  increased  resistance  would  offset  the  pressure  of  the 
muscles.  He  suggested  that  the  temporal  muscles  act  as  confining 
pads,  and  that  the  growing  skull,  conforming  to  the  line  of  least 
resistance,  enlarges  in  the  other  two  main  directions,  namely,  height 
and  length. 

The  pressure  of  the  temporal  muscles  is  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  their  use.  Consequently,  we  should  expect  to  find  the 
female  skull  much  more  scaphoid  than  the  male,  as  the  Eskimo 


2IO  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

women  are  almost  constantly  engaged  in  chewing  boot  soles  and 
skins  outside  of  the  regular  exercise  the  muscles  would  get  in  eating. 
But  the  contrary  is  true.  The  female  skull  is  broader  and  less 
scaphoid  than  the  male,  and  the  temporal  surfaces  less  marked. 
The  cephalic  index  of  the  female  skulls  is  76.06  in  our  series,  as 
contrasted  with  the  purely  dolichocephalic  skulls  of  the  males,  which 
average  72.65.  The  adolescent  and  infantile  crania  also  tend 
toward  mesocephaly,  with  average  cephalic  indices  of  75.26  and 
77.68  respectively.  The  term  mesaticephalic,  then,  fits  the  appear 
ance  of  the  female  and  young  skulls  more  accurately.  The  doli 
chocephalic  character  of  the  head  would  appear  to  be  attained  in 
growth.  In  the  more  scaphoid  type  of  the  male  skull  perhaps  we 
have  another  evidence  of  the  adult  male  producing  the  racial  char 
acteristics  in  an  exaggerated  form. 

SEX  DIFFERENCES 

The  importance  of  the  sex  variation  in  the  Eskimo  is  considerable, 
and  appears  to  have  been  overlooked  by  most  investigators.  Duck 
worth  and  Pain,  in  their  valuable  correlation  of  Eskimo  head  and 
skull  measurements,  were  careful  to  make  this  distinction.  The 
main  variation  in  the  Point  Barrow  skulls,  outside  of  the  more 
scaphoid  appearance  of  the  male  skull  already  mentioned,  is  in  the 
relation  of  the  breadth  of  face  to  the  width  of  the  head.  In  nearly 
every  case  it  is  under  100  in  the  females  and  over  100  in  the  males, 
the  breadth  of  face  being  excessive  in  the  males  but  less  than  the 
width  of  head  usually  in  the  females.  Both  the  facial  and  frontal 
width  approximate  the  maximum  breadth  of  the  skull  more  closely 
in  the  female  than  in  the  male.  The  cephalic  and  altitudinal 
indices  are  higher  in  the  female,  although  the  capacity  is  consider 
ably  less.  The  facial  and  nasal  indices  agree  fairly  well  in  both 
sexes.  The  palatal  (external)  index  of  the  female  is  higher  than 
that  of  the  male,  and  the  palate  broader,  due  to  the  extensive  use 
mentioned  above.  The  alveolar  prognathism  of  the  two  sexes  is 
practically  the  same  (97.53  being  the  alveolar  index  for  males,  and 
97.198  for  females).  The  adult  condition  does  not  seem  to  differ 
greatly  from  that  of  the  adolescent  (alveolar  index  97.706).  (See 
Table  A.) 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      211 


The  mandible  of  the  male  is  heavier  and  larger  absolutely,  but 
not  proportionally.  The  general  development  and  lines  in  both 
sexes  is  similar.  The  coronoid  index,  which  indicates  the  leverage 
of  the  jaw  (as  formulated  by  Thompson) ,  is  remarkably  uniform  in 

TABLE  A 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  as  to  Form;  Prognalhism 


Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Bas.  Pro. 

Bas.  Nas. 

Alv.  Index 

5400 

male 

104 

104 

IOO.OO 

5401 

III 

106 

95-50 

5403 

97 

101 

96.04 

5406 

105 

108 

97.22 

5408 

105 

108 

•   97.22 

5409 

96 

IO2 

94.12 

5410 

98 

106 

92.45 

5411 

107 

108 

99.07 

5414 

H3 

116 

97.41 

5415 

105 

105 

IOO.OO 

5418 

109 

107 

101.87 

5423 

107 

107 

IOO.OO 

5425 

104 

IO2 

101.96 

5426 

IOO 

108 

92.59 

Averages 

104.3 

106.2 

97-53 

5402 

fern. 

99 

102 

97.06 

5405 

" 

97 

98 

98.98 

54i6 

*  * 

95 

IOI 

94.06 

5420 

*  * 

97 

98 

98.98 

5428 

94 

97 

96.91 

Averages 

96.4 

99-2 

97.198 

5404 

adol. 

94 

96 

97.92 

5407 

1 

89 

93 

95.70 

5413 

' 

86 

90 

95-56 

5417 

' 

99 

IO2 

97.06 

5421 

' 

92 

92 

IOO.OO 

5424 

96 

96 

IOO.OO 

Averages 

92.6 

98.1 

97.706 

5412 

inf. 

78 

85 

91.76 

5422 

" 

80 

83 

96.39 

Averages 

79 

84 

94.075 

male  and  female  (39.75  for  males  and  39.19  for  females).  The 
mandibular  index  is  greater  in  the  male  (100.15  for  males  and 
90.478  for  females).  This  is  due  to  the  female  mandible  being  rela- 


212  AMERIC&N  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

tively  shorter  and  broader  than  the  male,  probably  due  to  the 
more  extensive  rotary  use  of  the  same.  The  male  mandible  is 
approximately  as  long  (condylosymphisial  length)  as  it  is  wide 
(bi-condylar  width.)  The  gripping  and  grinding  powers  of  the 
jaws  in  both  sexes  is  tremendous.  The  Eskimo  workman  uniformly 
uses  his  teeth  to  reinforce  his  hands  in  tightening  lashings  or  undoing 
knots  of  frozen  sealskin.  The  constant  chewing  by  the  women  soon 
wears  their  teeth  to  a  common  level.  The  inclination  of  wear  is 
slightly  oblique,  and  pronouncedly  so  in  the  men,  the  outer  edge 
of  the  teeth  being  worn  on  the  lower  jaw  and  conversely  above  (see 
pi.  xiv).  In  both  sexesS;here  is  a  strengthening  of  the  alveolar 
process  at  the  molars  to  withstand  the  heavy  strain  put  upon  them. 
The  molars  themselves  often  show  an  extra  cusp,  and  sometimes 
an  accessory  one,  while  the  third  molar  in  many  cases  has  a  foliated 
appearance,  giving  additional  small  cusps. 

The  bones  of  the  incomplete  female  skeleton  were  found  to  be 
much  more  primitive  than  those  of  the  two  male  skeletons.  The 
olecranon  fossa  were  perforated,  and  there  was  an  excessive  forward 
curve  of  the  femur  which  was  absent  in  both  male  skeletons.  The 
exostoses  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  were  also  more  pronounced 
in  .the, female  skeleton.  Generally  speaking,  the  female  skeleton 
strikes  one  as  more  primitive  and  less  differentiated,  and  the  male 
as  more  specialized  toward  a  racial  type. 

THE  FORM  OF  THE  PELVIS 

The  female  pelvis  in  the  Eskimo  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
large  dimensions.  A  specimen  from  Davis  strait  measured  by 
Turner  gave  the  following  results: — 

Conjugate  Transverse  Oblique 

Brim 45/8  in.  6         in.  5  6/8  in. 

Cavity 55/8   "  52/8   "  54/8   " 

Outlet 52/8   "  51/8   "  54/8   " 

Circumference  of  Brim 16  1/2  in. 

Depth  of  Pelvis 4 

Index  of  Brim 76 

The  female  pelvis  in  the  present  series  was  incomplete,  only  one 
innominate  bone  remaining.  The  dimensions  of  the  same  were, — 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      21$ 

height  205  mm.,  breadth  150  mm.,  index  73.13.  The  measurements 
of  the  male  pelvis  were  as  follows, — max.  breadth  (external)  299 
mm.,  general  pelvic  index  78.92,  ant.  post,  diameter  106  mm.,  lateral 
diameter  (internal)  132  mm.,  pelvic  index  at  superior  strait  80.30. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  dimensions  that  in  the  Eskimo  as 
in  other  races,  the  male  pelvis  is  larger  in  the  brim  but  smaller  in 
the  outlet  than  the  female  pelvis.  The  dimensions  of  the  outlet 
appear  to  be  unusually  large  in  the  female  pelvis,  which  accounts 
for  the  swift  and  easy  parturition  of  the  Eskimo  women  reported. 
There  is  a  general  custom  among  the  Alaskan  Eskimo  of  expelling 
the  infant  by  pressing  on  the  abdomen.  This  operation  is  performed 
by  certain  old  women,  who  act  as  midwives  for  the  village.  A  stout 
sealskin  thong  is  drawn  tightly  around  the  waist  of  the  patient, 
the  position  of  the  child  located,  and  pressure  exerted  downward 
by  the  operator,  who  stands  behind  the  patient  with  hands  locked 
over  the  abdomen.  The  patient  kneels  on  the  floor,  in  which 
position  she  is  delivered  in  a  short  time.  The  operation  is  not  usu 
ally  commenced  until  labor  is  well  under  way. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  AN  EXTRA  VERTEBRA  IN  THE  ESKIMO 

In  the  complete  male  skeleton  (5864)  thirteen  dorsal  vertebrae 
were  found  instead  of  the  normal  twelve.  The  eleventh,  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  vertebrae  closely  approximated  in  form  the  normal 
tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth.  The  thirteenth  vertebra  was  of  normal 
size  and  thickness,  with  well-developed  lateral  facets  for  the  attach 
ment  of  ribs.  The  thirteenth  rib  was  present  on  both  sides,  being 
rather  smaller  than  the  normal  twelfth  rib,  but  still  well  developed. 
The  twelfth  rib,  on  the  other  hand,  was  much  longer  than  in  normal 
individuals,  and  showed  signs  of  cartilaginous  attachment  at  the 
tips. 

The  incomplete  skeleton  (5429)  also  gave  evidence  from  the 
articulation  of  the  presence  of  an  additional  vertebra  between  the 
twelfth  dorsal  and  first  lumbar  vertebra.  Turner  in  the  Challenger 
Reports  also  mentions  the  occurrence  of  a  supernumerary  vertebra 
in  this  position  in  the  case  of  two  Australians  and  an  Eskimo  female 
skeleton  examined  by  him.  More  recently  Charles  Dawson  has 


214  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

drawn  attention  to  the  frequency  of  extra  vertebrae  in  the  Eskimo. 
He  treats  it  as  a  racial  characteristic  acquired  through  the  continual 
balancing  necessary  in  handling  a  kayak. 

The  wonderfully  light  construction  of  this  little  craft,  made  of 
driftwood  and  skins,  without  keel  or  ballast,  requires  continual 
tension  to  keep  it  from  capsizing.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is 
an  advantage  to  have  a  flexible  back  and  long  waist,  and  the 
individual  possessing  these  characteristics  has  a  better  chance  of 
survival.  When  the  kayak  is  overturned,  he  is  able  to  right  himself 
by  a  powerful  twist  of  the  body  and  stroke  of  the  paddle.  This 
trait,  transmitted  and  become  general  through  the  survival  of  the 
fittest,  would  in  time  become  a  racial  characteristic.  Another 
factor  making  for  a  flexible  waist  is  the  backward  bend  of  the 
hunter  in  poising  the  harpoon  when  in  the  kayak,  and  the  continual 
twist  of  the  body  in  using  the  double-bladed  paddle  on  either  side 
alternately.1 

The  additional  vertebra  is  a  simian  characteristic  and  occurs  in 
very  primitive  races.  It  is  another  evidence  of  the  primitive 
structure  of  the  Eskimo  skeleton,  in  keeping  with  other  anomalies 
discovered  in  this  series  as  the  perforation  of  the  olecranon  fossa, 
the  extreme  forward  curve  of  the  femur,  etc. 

The  lumbar  curve  in  the  Eskimo  is,  however,  not  in  keeping  with 
the  primitive  traits  above  mentioned,  the  index  (after  Cunningham) 
being  intermediate  between  that  of  the  European  and  those  of  the 
primitive  peoples.  The  index  for  the  Eskimo  is  99.7,  as  opposed  to 
95.8  for  the  European  and  107.8  for  Australians,  106.6  for  Bushmen, 
and  105.4  f°r  negroes.  The  lumbovertebral  index  of  5864,  in  which 
the  thirteenth  dorsal  vertebra  was  present,  is  99.6,  thus  differing 
by  only  .1  from  that  given  by  Cunningham  as  the  Eskimo  normal. 
This  apparently  inconsistent  characteristic  of  a  supernumerary 
vertebra,  in  conjunction  with  a  well-developed  curve,  may  be  ac 
counted  for  by  the  exercise  of  the  waist  mentioned  above,  which 
demands  a  high  degree  of  suppleness  and  elasticity  conducive  to 

1  The  author  does  not  wish  to  insist  upon  this  possible  explanation.  In  a  large 
series  of  Eskimo  skeletons  from  St.  Lawrence  island  examined  by  a  friend  since  this 
article  was  written,  an  extra  vertebra  was  found  in  only  two.  So  that  it  would 
appear  to  be  a  not  uncommon  anomaly  among  the  Eskimo,  rather  than  a  racial  trait. 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      21$ 

the  formation  of 'compensatory  vertebral  curves.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  Alaskan  Eskimo,  who  do  not  use  the  kayak  with  the  same 
expertness  as  the  Greenlanders,  from  whom  Dawson  drew  his 
material,  nevertheless  retain  this  racial  characteristic  of  a  well- 
marked  clirve.1 

OCCURRENCE  OF  OTHER  ANOMALIES 

Although  the  Eskimo  skull  is  scaphoid  in  shape,  the  sagittal 
suture  remains  open  to  an  advanced  age,  in  contradiction  to  the 
early  closure  of  crania  of  this  shape  in  other  races,  due.tQ  lateral 
pressure.  In  only  three  of  the  twenty-eight  Point  Barrow  skulls 
is  there  a  complete  fusion  of  the  parietals.  One  of  these  is  a  male, 
and  the  other  a  female,  both  aged.  The  other  case,  curiously 
enough,  is  that  of  an  adolescent  skull.  The  sagittal  suture  is  com 
pletely  closed  although  the  other  sutures  are  well  marked  and  den 
tition  is  incomplete.  The  shape  of  the  adolescent  skull  is  rounded 
rather  than  scaphoid.  The  female  skulls  are  less  scaphocephalic 
than  the  male. 

In  several  of  the  skulls  of  both  sexes  the  metopic  suture  is  not 
yet  closed  in  the  region  of  the  glabella.  The  infra-orbital  suture 
persists  in  a  majority  of  cases.  There  are  ten  cases  of  the  appear 
ance  of  Wormian  bones  in  the  occipital  region,  and  one  skull 
(5428)  shows  the  rare  Epiteric  bone.  A  search  for  evidence  of 
grooves  formed  by  the  supra-orbital  nerves  in  the  frontal  region  and 
blood  vessels  in  the  occipital,2  which  are  said  to  be  rare  in  the 
Eskimo,  failed  to  reveal  anything  in  this  series. 

The  incisors,  in  the  young  as  well  as  in  the  adults,  meet  edge  to 
edge,  instead  of  overlapping  as  in  most  races.  The  canines  also 
meet  instead  of  falling  one  behind  the  other  and  are  worn  down  to  a 
level  with  the  incisors.  They  are  much  thickened  and  approach  the 
pre-molar  in  shape.  The  position  and  wear  of  the  front  teeth  sug- 

1  Cunningham,  Lumbar  Curve  in  Man  and  the  Apes.      Cunningham  Memoirs, 
Royal  Irish  Academy,  1886. 

2  "On  Certain  Markings,  Due  to  Nerves  and  Blood  Vessels,  Upon  the  Cranial 
Vault;  Their  Significance  and  the  Relative  Frequency  of  their  Occurrence  in  the  Dif 
ferent  Races  of  Mankind,"  A.  Francis  Dixon,  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
Vol.  38,  1904. 


2l6  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

gests  a  side-to-side  grinding  movement  of  the  jaw  in  the  Eskimo 
as  in  Mousterian  man,  as  opposed  to  the  direct  bite  of  civilized 
man.  The  extremely  broad  palate  of  the  Eskimo  is  further  evidence 
of  this  movement.  Consequently,  the  teeth  are  worn  off  obliquely 
the  inclination  being  inward  on  the  upper  jaw  and  outward  on  the 
lower. 

In  one  aged  male  skull  (5403)  the  atlas  is  fused  with  the  base  of 
the  skull,  resulting  in  an  obscuring  of  the  outlines  of  the  foramen 
magnum,  which  appears  distorted.  In  another  male  skull  (5404) 
the  foramen  magnum  is  decidedly  asymmetrical.  In  5408,  owing 
to  a  diseased  condition  of  the  bone  (plate  xiv),  the  entire  base  of 
the  skull  is  twisted  out  of  shape.  The  pyriform  shape  of  the 
foramen  magnum  was  not  noted  in  any  of  the  crania. 

INFANTILE  AND  ADULT  CHARACTERISTICS 

Duckworth  and  Pain,  in  "A  Contribution  to  Eskimo  Crani- 
ology, "  have  outlined  those  characteristics  of  Eskimo  crania  which 
they  attribute  to  growth,  and  those  which  they  believe  are  reten 
tions  of  infantile  traits.  The  present  series  has  been  carefully 
gone  over  with  this  in  mind.  Of  the  infantile  characteristics 
retained  in  the  adult  the  following  held  good :  the  megasemic  orbital 
aperture,  the  flattened  nasal  skeleton,  the  small  mastoid  processes, 
and  the  persistence  of  the  infra-orbital  suture.  For  the  rest,  the 
pyriform  contour  of  the  foramen  magnum  was  not  present  in  either 
the  young  or  adults,  the  prominence  of  the  chin  was  more  apparent 
than  real,  and  the  most  important  infantile  trait  suggested,  the 
dolichocephalic  character  of  the  skull,  was  not  borne  out  by  our  re 
sults  at  all.  Both  the  infantile  skulls  in  our  series  are  mesocephalic 
(indices  78.85  and  75.5),  as  are  the  three  " young"  skulls  from 
Southampton  island  described  by  Hrdlicka,  with  cephalic  indices 
of  78.1,  77,  and  76.1  respectively.  We  would  therefore  be 
inclined  to  place  the  dolichocephalic  character  of  the  adult  Eskimo 
head  under  those  characteristics  acquired  by  growth.  To  this  we 
would  add  the  other  traits  suggested  by  Duckworth  and  Pain  tinder 
this  head ;  the  low  nasal  index,  depending  on  the  extreme  narrowness 
of  the  nasal  aperture  (which  Hrdlicka  suggests  may  be  an  adaption 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      21? 

to  extreme  cold);  the  greater  prominence  of  the  malar  bones,  and 
the  scaphocephalic  cranium  without  sagittal  synostosis.  Of  these 
the  difference  in  nasal  width  is  not  great  proportionally  between 
young  and  adult  skulls,  and  the  scaphocephalic  cranium  is  much 
more  frequent  in  the  males. 

INDIVIDUAL  VARIATION 

The  accompanying  table  of  the  variation  of  the  indices  of  in 
dividuals  within  the  three  great  Eskimo  branches  (see  Table  B) , 
eastern,  central,  and  western,  was  suggested  by  a  table  of  the 
individual  variation  in  the  indices  of  a  set  of  Labrador  and  Green 
land  skulls  examined  by  Duckworth  and  Pain.  It  appeared 
feasible  to  extend  this  treatment  to  other  Eskimo  groups  and  denote 
the  individual  variation  within  each  group  and  as  compared  with 
each  other.  The  number  of  crania  in  the  different  groups  is  not 
exactly  the  same,  but  sufficiently  close  for  general  conclusions. 
For  the  central  group  the  adult  skulls  of  HrdliCka's  Southampton 
islanders  have  been  taken,  and  for  the  western,  the  adult  crania 
in  the  present  series.  Hence,  we  have  small  but  representative 
groups  for  comparison. 

In  those  indices  which  determine  the  racial  affinity  of  Eskimo 
tribes,  the  cephalic .  vertical ,  jnasal ,,  and,  orbital,  the  average  indices 
of  all  three  groups  are  very-close.  Consequently,  when  we  find  the 
traits  which  the  indices  reveal,  a  dolichocephalic  head,  megasemic 
orbits,  and  leptorhinian  nasal  structure  persisting  throughout  these 
groups,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  racial  relation  is  strong, 
and  that  the  variations  of  tribe  and  tribe  are  less  than  the  individual 
ones.  We  might  further  expect  that  the  individual  variation  would 
be  greatest  in  that  branch  which  has  been  subjected  to  the  addi 
tional  stimulation  afforded  by  an  improved  environment  and  con 
tact  with  races  of  a  superior  type  and  culture.  Consequently,  we 
find  the  individual  variation  more  noticeable  in  the  west,  and  the 
western  type  with  lengthened  face,  shortened  bi-zygomatic  breadth, 
and  increased  stature  somewhat  different.  But  the  change  is  a  very 
gradual  one  from  group  to  group,  and  the  physical  type,  like  the 
culture  and  language,  dominated  by  the  same  essential  traits 
throughout. 


218 


AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


Judging  from  the  indices,  the  relation  of    the  Western  Eskimo 
is  closer  to  the  Central  than  the  Eastern  Eskimo. 

TABLE  B 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  VARIATION  OF  INDICES  OF  EASTERN  (LABRADOR  AND  GREEN 
LAND),  CENTRAL  (SOUTHAMPTON  ISLAND),  AND  WESTERN  (ALASKAN)  ESKIMO 


Index 

No.  Skulls 

Locality 

! 

Average 

Divergence 

Variation 

Above 

Below 

Cephalic  .              .    . 

2O 

Eastern 

71.5 

75-4 

65.8 

9.6 

TA 

Central 

74-55 

78.2 

68.6 

9.6 

"                                                            21 

Western 

74.748 

79.66 

70.35 

9-3 

Vertical  

9 

Eastern 

73-5 

79.2 

69.3 

9.9 

14 

Central 

74-3 

70.2 

66.2 

13 

11 

21 

Western 

73.673         76.  ^6 

68.84 

7.92 

Orbital 

8 

Eastern 

88.65 

94.7 

78.6 

16.1 

"                                      13 

Central 

90.87 

io5-4(?) 

82.4 

23 

2T 

\Vestern 

89.98 

99.50 

83.95 

15.55 

Nasal 

7 

Eastern 

45-55 

50 

40.3 

9-7 

13 

Central 

43-05 

48.4 

38.7 

9-7 

" 

21 

Western 

41.072 

48 

33-93 

15.07 

Facial  

6 

Eastern 

54-36 

62.3 

49-3 

13 

" 

13 

Central 

52.65 

54-9 

46.1 

8.8 

" 

21 

Western 

53-09 

59-29 

44-05 

15.24 

Gonio-zygomatic    .  . 

7 

Eastern 

80.9 

91-5 

74.6 

16.9 

" 

. 

Central 

...               ... 

.  .  . 

" 

21 

Western 

75.92           89.20 

71.74 

15.46 

Palato  maxillary.  .  .  . 

7 

Eastern 

112.  1               I2O 

105.3 

14.7 

13 

Central 

II9.4 

127-3 

106.7 

20.6 

....          18 

Western 

120.545 

129.79 

106.78 

23.01 

Horizontal  circum.  . 

10 

(Eastern) 

513-5 

550 

476 

74 

" 

14 

Central 

517 

532 

491 

4i 

21 

Western 

507.8 

540 

487 

53 

Note. — The  Central  and  Western  measurements  for  horizontal  circumference  do 
not  include  the  glabella.  The  palato-maxillary  measurements  are  also  external  for 
both.  Duckworth  and  Pain  do  not  describe  the  Eastern  measurement  whether  external 
or  internal,  for  the  palato-maxillary,  or  including  glabella  in  the  horizontal  circumfer 
ence.  Measurements  are  all  of  adult  crania.  The  Central  measurements  are  taken 
from  Hrdlicka's  Southampton  island  tables,  and  the  Western  from  our  Point 

Barrow  series. 

».. 

MEASUREMENTS  IN  DETAIL 

Form  of  the  Skull. — The  detailed  measurements  of  the  crania  of 
the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo  illustrate  the  general  tendency  of  the 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO 


breadth  of  the  head  to  keep  constant  in  spite  of  a  wide  variation  in 
length.  The  breadth  averages  of  137.3  f°r  the  males  and  135.8 
for  the  females  may  be  compared  with  the  corresponding  length  aver- 

TABLE  i. 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  as  to  Form:  Head  Measurements 


Ht  and 

Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Length 

Breadth 

Bas.  Height 

Ceph.  I.. 

Alt.  I. 

Bf.I. 

5400 

male 

185 

139 

142       75.14 

76.76 

102.  l6 

5401 

" 

I96 

140 

143       71.43 

72.96 

102.14 

5403 

" 

186  V 

137 

134       73.66 

72.04 

97.81 

5406 

" 

189 

137 

134       72.49 

70.90 

97.81 

5408 

" 

190 

134 

137       70.53 

72.11 

102.24 

5409 

11 

181 

131 

131       72.92 

72.92 

100.  OO 

5410 

" 

1  88 

137 

137       72.87 

72.87 

IOO.OO 

5411 

" 

185 

135  ' 

137 

72.97 

74-05 

101.48 

5414 

*  * 

199 

141 

149 

70.85 

74.87 

105.67 

5415 

" 

191 

137 

141       71.73 

73-82 

102.92 

5418 

" 

199 

140 

137 

70-35 

68.84 

97-86 

5423 

" 

187 

137 

141 

73-20 

75-40 

102.92 

5425 

" 

182 

137 

134       75-27 

73-63 

97-8i 

5426 

190 

141 

144       73.68 

74-21 

102.13 

Averages 

.... 

189.1 

137-3 

138.6      72.65      73.24 

100.68 

5402 

fern. 

180 

132 

136      73-33 

75-56 

103.03 

5405 

*  * 

181 

136 

130 

75-14 

71.82 

95-59 

5416 

*  ' 

173 

133 

132 

76.88 

76.30 

99-25 

5420  , 

*  * 

182 

137 

136 

75.27 

74-57 

99-27 

5428 

177 

141 

131 

79.66 

74.01 

92.91 

Averages 



178.6 

135-8 

133 

76.06 

74-45 

98.01 

5404 

adol. 

173 

131 

133 

75-72 

76.88 

101.53 

5407 

" 

178 

134 

130 

75.28 

73-03 

97-01 

5413 

" 

175 

132 

127 

75-43 

72.57     96.21 

5417 

" 

179      128 

133 

71.51 

74.30    103.91 

5421 

" 

176      130 

126 

73-86 

71-59 

97-67 

5424 

173      138 

129 

79-77 

74-57 

93-48 

Averages 



175.6     132.1 

129.6 

75-26 

73.82     98.30 

5412 

inf. 

166      127 

122 

76.51 

73-49 

96.06 

5422 

160      126 

117 

78.85 

73.13     92.86 

Averages 

163      126.5     H9-5 

77-68 

73.31     94.46 

Note. — All  measurements,  unless  otherwise  indicated,  are  in  millimeters.     Length 
and  breadth  are  maximum  measurements.      The  height  is  the  Basion-Bregma  height. 

ages  of  189.1  and  178.2  respectively  (see  Table  I.)      The  increase 
from  the  adolescent  breadth  average  of  132.1  is  slight  relative  to  the 


220  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

increase  from  the  adolescent  length  average  of  175.6.  It  will  be 
noted  here,  as  elsewhere,  that  the  female  approximates  the  adolescent 
type. 

The  well-known  extreme  length  of  head  of  the  Eskimo  is  fully 
realized  in  this  western  group  in  the  male  series  which  attains  an 
average  of  189.1,  which  is  as  high  as  that  of  the  purest  central  type 
(Southampton  island,  189).  There  is  considerable  individual  vari 
ation  in  the  Point  Barrow  group,  182/196,  which,  however,  is  less 
than  that  of  the  central  group,  179/204  for  a  smaller  number.  This 
phase  has  been  dealt  with  by  itself.  It  is  not  significant  here, 
except  to  illustrate  the  fact,  that  with  the  supposedly  purest  groups 
of  a  racial  type  there  is  a  large  individual  variation. 

The  average  length  of  the  female  skulls  in  our  series  is  much 
less,  178.6,  and  the  range  of  individual  variation  smaller,  173/182; 
which,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  above-mentioned  tendency 
to  constancy  of  breadth  of  head,  places  them  well  within  the  limits 
of  mesocephalic  skulls.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
this  is  a  result  of  the  lessening  of  the  extreme  length  of  head  in  the 
female  sex  and  not  a  consequent  broadening.  As  will  be  shown  in 
later  tables,  the  females  have  not  acquired  in  proportion  to  the 
breadth  of  head,  the  extreme  breadth  of  face  characteristic  of  the 
males,  while  they  have  preserved  other  prominent  traits,  as  the 
narrow  nasal  aperture,  the  broad  palate,  and  deep  set  orbits. 

The  narrow-headedness  of  the  Eskimo  is  well  represented  in 
the  Point  Barrow  skulls.  The  average  width,  137.3  f°r  males  and 
136.8  for  females,  is  less  than  that  of  the  Southampton  island 
Eskimo,  140  in  males  and  137  in  females,  but  close  to  that  of  the 
Mackenzie  Eskimo,  137  (Russell).  There  appears  to  be  a  tendency 
for  the  width  of  the  head  to  decrease  toward  the  west  from  the  central 
region,  which  probably  goes  with  a  decrease  of  the  width  of  face, 
until  the  broad-headed  Aleutians  are  met  with.  Nevertheless, 
the  racial  tendency  of  the  Eskimo  toward  a  long,  narrow  head  is  as 
evident  among  the  males  in  the  west,  as  among  the  Eskimo  gener 
ally  in  the  east. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  extreme  length,  the  cephalic 
index  of  the  males,  (72.65)  shows  a  well-marked  tendency  toward 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      221 

dojichocephaly .  Only  two  skulls  in  the  series  give  averages  above  75 . 
The  female  skulls  are  more  inclined  to  be  mesocephalic,  the  average 
being  76.06.  If  we  compare  this  figure  with  the  adolescent  average 
(75.26)  we  are  again  struck  by  the  similarity  of  the  female  to  the 
adolescent  type.  The  infantile  skulls  give  the  high  average  of 
77.68,  owing  to  their  lesser  length.  The  breadth  (126.5)  remains 
remarkably  close  to  the  adult  skulls. 

In  Table  2  a  comparison  has  been  made  of  the  cranial  indices  of 
the  various  branches  of  Eskimo.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  cephalic 

TABLE  2. 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  CEPHALIC,  ALTITUDINAL,  AND  HEIGHT-BREADTH  INDICES  OF 

ESKIMO  GROUPS 


Locality 

No. 

Sex 

Collector 

Ce 
phalic 

Altitud. 

Height 
Breadth. 

Eastern  — 
E   Greenland      

4 

? 

Pansch 

72.9 

74.2 

IOI.70 

W.  Greenland  

21 

? 

Bessels 

72.6 

73-7 

IOI.O5 

Labrador     .        

6 

p 

Duckworth 

72.O8 

73-051 

101.34 

Central  — 
Smith  sound  
Southampton  island  . 
Southampton  island  . 
Mackenzie  — 
Herschel  island 

99 
9 
5 

o 

? 

male 
fern. 

? 

Bessels 
Hrdlicka 
Hrdlicka 

Russell 

7I-372 

74.2 

74-9 
74.6 

76.91 
74.1 
74-5 

73-5 

107.96 
99.8 
99-4 

98.76 

Alaska— 
Point  Barrow  

16 

male 

Hawkes 

72.65 

73.24 

100.68 

Point  Barrow  .  .  ..... 

5 

fern. 

Hawkes 

76.06 

74.45 

98.01 

Bering  strait  

4 

p 

Army  Med.  Mus. 

75.82 

76.33 

100.76 

Aleutian  

15 

? 

Bessels 

86.49 

74.02 

86.05 

index  increases  from  the  east  to  the  west,  while  the  altitudinal  and 
height-breadth  indices  decrease.  That  is,  the  head  becomes  less 
elongated  and  scaphoid,  and  more  rounding  in  the  west.  Un 
fortunately,  we  do  not  possess  figures  for  the  indices  of  the  sexes 
over  this  entire  area,  but  in  the  central  region  the  female  cephalic 
and  altitudinal  index  is  slightly  higher  than  that  of  the  male  and  in 
the  Point  Barrow  skulls  notably  so.  Two  female  skulls  in  the  Bering 
strait  group  have  cephalic  indices  of  75.14  and  78.57  as  compared  to 
the  indices  of  72.68  and  78.87  in  the  two  male  skulls.  The  shorter 


1  Four  Greenland  skulls  were  included  in  this  index. 

2  Cephalic  index  for  100  skulls,  other  indices  for  99. 


222 


AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


head  of  the  women  in  the  west  would  tend  to  raise  the  index. 
Within  the  western  group  itself,  Table  3  shows  the  gradual  rise  of 
the  mean  of  the  cephalic  index  from  the  Mackenzie  river  to  the 
Aleutian  islands.  The  approach  appears  to  be  toward  the  broad- 
headed  Aleutian  type  rather  than  the  Athapascan  of  the  interior. 

TABLE  3. 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  CEPHALIC  INDICES  OF  WESTERN  ESKIMO 


Index 

Herschel  Island 

Pt.  Barrow 

Bering  St. 

Aleutian  Is. 

70 

3 

71 

3 

72 

I 

4 

73 

I 

5 

I 

.  .  . 

74 

31 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

75 

2 

71 

I 

76 

2 

2 

I 

77 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

78 

2 

I 

I 

79 

2 

80 

81 

•  '  ' 

82 

2 

83 

.  .  . 

84 

I 

85 

31 

86 

.  .  . 

I 

87 

.  .  . 

I 

88 

. 

2 

89 

I 

90 

2 

91 

92 

I 

Total  skulls  I               9 

28 

4 

15 

Average  index  74.6 

75-15 

75.82 

86.49 

According  to  the  measurements  of  A.  J.  Stone,  the  interior  Alaskan 
Eskimo  radically  differ  from  the  Athapascans,  with  whom  they 
come  in  contact,  in  the  form  of  the  head,  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  face,  and  the  shape  of  the  nose.  The  superior  height  of  the 
Eskimo  skull  gives  it  a  larger  capacity  than  would  be  judged  from 

1  Denotes  mean  measurements.  Had  it  been  possible  to  use  the  living  measure 
ments  of  A.  J.  Stone  on  the  Nunatagmuit,  an  interior  Eskimo  tribe  situated  between 
Point  Barrow  and  Bering  strait,  with  an  average  cephalic  index  of  81,  and  a  mean 
measurement  of  82,  the  step  between  the  Bering  strait  Eskimo  and  the  Aleut  would 
be  nicely  bridged.  The  difference  between  the  cephalic  index  of  the  head  and  the 
skull,  according  to  Boas,  is  2.2  for  the  Eastern  Eskimo. 


\    I 


Z) 

<  g 


AMERICAN    ANTHROPOLOGIST 


N.    S.,    VOL.    18,    PL.    XI 


B 

POINT    BARROW    ESKIMO    SKULLS:    A,    FEMALE;     B,    MALE 


AMERICAN    ANTHROPOLOGIST 


N.    S.,    VOL.    18,    PL.    XII 


POINT    BARROW     ESKIMO    SKULLS:    A,    INFANTILE;     B,    ADOLESCENT 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      22$ 

its  small  frontal  width.  In  fact,  some  heads  are  so  scaphoid  as  to 
appear  pathological.  In  spite  of  the  extreme  height  of  the  Eskimo 
head,  the  altitudinal  index  is  much  diminished  by  the  extreme 
length  of  the  skull.  Consequently,  the  Eskimo  have  a  lower  height 
indexsthan  the  Lapps,  who  have  a  notably  low  skull,  and  who  attain 
a  higher  degree  on  account  of  their  shortness  of  head.  The  height 
breadth  index  gives  a  truer  picture  of  the  proportionate  shape  of 
the  head,  outside  of  length.  Topinard  suggested  a  combination  of 
the  height  and  height-breadth  indices,  an  averaging  of  the  results 
obtained  by  each,  which  would  accord  more  nearly  with  the  appear 
ance  of  the  crania. 

In  ten  cases  out  of  fourteen  in  the  male  series  of  the  Point  Barrow 
skulls  the  height  exceeds  the  width.  Among  the  Eastern  Eskimo 
the  proportion  is  greater,  the  general  type  having  a  width  of  144  mm. 
and  a  height  of  150  mm.  The  average  width  of  the  Point  Barrow 
male  skulls  is'  137.3  and  the  average  height  138.7.  The  average 
height  of  the  female  crania  shows  a  considerable  decrease  (133  mm.), 
whereas  the  width  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  males  (135.8). 

The  difference  of  the  sexes  in  relation  to  height  and  breadth  of 
skull  is  well  brought  out  in  the  height-breadth  indices.  In  this 
series  there  is  only  one  female  skull  which  does  not  fall  under  106 
(the  width  exceeding  the  height),  and  only  four  male  skulls  which 
do  not  give  an  index  above  100  (the  height  exceeding  the  width). 
The  four  male  skulls  in  which  the  breadth  exceeds  the  height  possess 
certain  peculiarities  in  common  which  leads  to  the  suspicion  that 
they  may  represent  an  intruding  strain  of  blood  from  another 
Eskimo  district.  They  all  possess  a  very  high  and  well-marked 
temporal  ridge,  a  high  keel,  a  narrow  forehead  but  a  wide  and 
bulging  backhead.  All  four  show  a  height-breadth  index  of  97, 
and  in  three  the  measurement  for  height  and  breadth  is  identical, 
137  mm.  and  134  mm. 

Capacity. — In  determining  the  capacity  of  the  Point  Barrow 
skulls  an  attempt  was  made  to  use  the  general  formula  of  Dr.  Lee1 
but  it  was  found  that  the  results  did  not  agree  with  the  actual 
measurements.  The  scaphocephalic  shape  of  the  Eskimo  head, 

1  Phil.  Trans.,  196,  A,  1901. 
15 


224 


AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


which  increases  the  height  out  of  all  proportion,  rendered  the  for 
mula  useless.  A  special  formula  would  probably  have  to  be  devised 
for  the  Eskimo. 

TABLE  4 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  as  to  Capacity 


Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Capacity 

Circum. 

Oph.  Cir. 

Nas.  Opis. 
Arc. 

Trans.  Arc, 

5400 

male 

1330  c.c. 

530 

510 

375 

315 

5401 

" 

1610 

545 

535 

383 

317 

5403 

** 

1410  " 

520 

510 

365 

305 

5406 

11 

? 

528 

520 

361 

298 

5408 

** 

1230  " 

533 

515 

358 

298 

5409 

" 

? 

520 

495 

362 

302 

54io 

" 

? 

528 

520 

378 

311 

S4ii 

" 

? 

520 

5io 

352 

293 

5414 

" 

1510 

553 

540 

395 

325 

5415 

" 

1480  " 

533 

520 

380 

303 

S4i8 

" 

1410  " 

557 

540 

377 

310 

5423 

" 

1480  " 

535 

515 

370 

307 

5425 

" 

1250  " 

515 

505 

357 

303 

5426 

1550  ' 

530 

522 

372 

318 

Average 



1426  " 

532 

517 

370 

307 

5402 

fern. 

1300 

5io 

500 

361 

303 

5405 

11 

I2OO   " 

507 

502 

360 

295 

54i6 

" 

? 

490 

487 

350 

301 

5420 

" 

1320 

515 

5io 

362 

304 

5428 

" 

1330 

515 

500 

352 

300 

Average 



I287.S  " 

507.4 

499.8 

357 

300.6 

5404 

adol. 

1300   " 

485 

486 

355 

298 

5407 

" 

1310 

495 

493 

355 

297 

5413 

" 

1325 

486 

487 

353 

291 

5417 

" 

I29O 

491 

492 

353 

295 

5421 

" 

I3IS   " 

490 

492 

362 

292 

5424 

" 

1315 

495 

494 

348 

300 

Average 

I309.I  " 

490.3 

490.6 

354-3 

295-5 

5412 

inf. 

1190 

458 

467 

343 

290 

5422 

ins 

458 

457 

333 

283 

Average 

.... 

1152.5  " 

458 

462 

338 

286.5 

Note. — The  figure  for  capacity  is  the  average  of  three  measurements  taken  on 
each  skull,  using  no.  8  shot. 

The  circumferences  are,   respectively,  horizontal,  including  and    not  including 

glabella.     In  the  infantile  and  adolescent  series,  owing  to  the  lack  of  development  of 

the  orbital  ridges,  the  Orphryanic  measurement  slightly  exceeds  that  in  the  inter-orbital 

ne.     The  transverse  arc  is  measured  from  the  upper  margin  of  the  auditory  meatus. 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      22$ 

The  size  of  the  skull  was  also  found  to  be  no  exact  criterion  of 
the  capacity,  due  to  the  large  variation  in  the  thickness  of  the 
parietal  bones.  One  skull  that  appeared  to  be  above  the  average 
in  size  gave  a  capacity  of  only  1230  c.c.,  while  another  skull  of 
slightly  less  exterior  measurement  gave  a  capacity  of  1330  c.c. 
The  variation  appears  greatest  in  male  skulls. 

The  capacity  of  the  Point  Barrow  skulls  as  a  whole  is  not  as 
great  as  that  of  the  Central  and  Eastern  Eskimo.  The  average 
capacity  of  the  male  crania  is  1426  c.c.  as  against  1563  c.c.  for  the 
Southampton  island  Eskimo  (Hrdlicka).  The  largest  Point  Barrow 
skull  has  a  capacity  of  1610  c.c.,  so  it  will  be  seen  that  the  capacity 
is  still  large  in  the  west,  and  that  the  head  still  maintains  this  dis 
tinctly  Eskimo  character.  The  female  average  in  this  group  is 
about  1300  c.c.,  the  general  average  being  brought  down  to  1287 
c.c.  by  one  very  small  skull.  The  adolescent  average  of  1301.1  c.c. 
is  instructive  in  showing  the  close  correlation  between  the  female 
and  adolescent  types,  which  is  confirmed  in  other  measurements. 

The  cause  for  the  large  capacity  of  the  Eskimo  skull  still  remains 
undiscovered.  The  superior  inventiveness  of  this  people  is  il 
lustrated  in  their  ingenious  culture.  The  brain  is  said  to  show 
good  differentiation,  but  no  signs  of  extraordinary  mental  powers 
(Hrdlicka).  The  diameter  of  the  foramen  magnum  is  large,  in 
dicating  a  stout  spinal  cord,  which  may  or  may  not  have  a  direct 
influence  on  the  size  of  the  brain.  The  large  capacity  of  the  infan 
tile  skulls,  1152.5  c.c.,  suggests  that  the  large  size  of  the  brain  is  a 
racial  trait,  and  not  acquired  through  the  educative  process  of 
their  environment. 

Breadth  of  Face  in  Proportion  to  Breadth  of  Head. — The  Eskimo 
of  the  central  region  and  Greenland  are  characterized  by  a  very  broad 
face  in  proportion  to  the  breadth  of  head.  The  general  proportion 
is  1 02,  ranging  as  high  as  105  and  107  in  individuals.  Eighty- five 
skulls  from  Smith  sound,  measured  by  Bessels,  gave  an  average 
head  width  of  133  and  an  average  facial  (bi-zygomatic)  width  of  136, 
a  proportion  of  102.  Unfortunately,  in  his  long  list  of  crania, 
Bessels  made  no  distinctions  as  to  sex,  and  this  is  an  important 
difference,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  following  comparative  table. 


226 


AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


TABLE  5 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  THE  PROPORTION  BETWEEN  BREADTH  OF  HEAD  AND  BREADTH 
OF  FACE  OF  ESKIMO  GROUPS 


Locality 

No. 
Skulls 

Sex 

Collector 

Breadth 
Face 

Breadth 
Head 

Pro. 
BF/BH. 

Greenland 

c 

male 

Davis 

147 

I4O 

io< 

Greenland  
Smith  sound  
West  coast  Baffin  bay  
West  coast  Baffin  bay  
Southampton  island  

5 
85 
5 

2 

9 

fern. 
? 

male 
fern, 
male 

Davis 
Bessels 
Davis 
Davis 
Hrdlicka 

130 
133 
137 
124 
145 

130 
130 
135 
132 
140 

IOO 
IO2 
102 

94 
103.5 

Southampton  island  

5 

fern. 

Hrdlicka 

138 

137 

100.7 

Herschel  island  

9 

? 

Russell 

139 

137 

IOI 

Pt.  Barrow 

16 

male 

Hawkes 

I4I.2 

1^7.^ 

IO2.Z 

Pt.  Barrow 

t 

fern. 

Hawkes 

1^2 

1^6.2 

96.8 

Bering  strait 

2 

male 

Army  Med.  Mus. 

I-IA 

1^6.^ 

98.12 

Bering  strait  

2 

fern. 

Army  Med.  Mus. 

130 

131 

99.24 

Living  Measurements 


Locality 

No. 
Heads 

Sex 

Collector 

Breadth 
Face 

Breadth 
Head 

Pro. 
BF/BH. 

Labrador 

•3 

male 

Virchow 

147 

149 

99 

Labrador 

2 

fern. 

Virchow 

1-24 

1-57 

98 

Mackenzie  (Kukpagmuit)  . 
Mackenzie  (Kukpagmuit)  . 
Int.  Alaska  (Nunatagmuit). 
Int.  Alaska  (Nunatagmuit). 

12 

6 

'l2 

5 

male 
fern, 
male 
fem. 

Stone 
Stone 
Stone 
Stone 

147.8 
139-7 
155-7 
144.6 

144 
I4I-5 
154-5 
142.6 

102.7 
99 
100.  8 
101.6 

In  nearly  all  cases  where  a  sex  differentiation  has  been  made, 
the  male  skulls  show  a  proportion  above  100  and  the  females  below. 
In  series  where  no  such  differentiation  has  been  made,  as  in  Bessels' 
Smith  sound  Eskimo  and  Russell's  Mackenzie  Eskimo,  the  general 
average  is  slightly  over  100  (102  and  101),  which  may  be  considered 
as  the  average  between  the  two  sexes.  But  these  figures  are  mis 
leading,  in  that  they  fail  to  bring  out  the  pronounced  facial  breadth 
in  the  male,  and  the  lack  of  the  same  characteristic  in  the  female. 
Consequently,  owing  to  the  small  number  of  female  skulls  measured, 
and  to  their  being  lost  sight  of  in  the  general  average,  the  sex  dif 
ferentiation  has  been  lost,  and  the  extreme  breadth  of  face  em 
phasized  as  a  racial  trait,  when  it  holds  good  only  for  the  males. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  a  similar  error  was  made  in  the  case  of  the 
Tasmanians. 

Facial  Indices. — The  upper  facial  portion  of  the  Point  Barrow 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      22/ 


skulls  is  long,  giving  a  relatively  high  index  in  spite  of  the  extensive 
breadth  of  the  face.  The  upper  facial  index  (Kollmann's)  of  the 
male  skulls  is  52.48  (see  Table  6).  That  of  the  female  skulls  is 

TABLE  6 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  as  to  Form:  Facial  Measurements 


Facial  Index 

Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Breadth 
Bi-zyg. 

BF/BH 
Proportion 

Height 
Chin.  Nas. 

'Height 
Pros.  Nas. 

Total 

Upper 

5400 

male 

144 

103.60             135                    78 

93-75 

54.16 

5401 

" 

144' 

102.86           134                72 

93.06 

50.00 

5403 

" 

137 

100.00           119                 71               86.86 

5I.8I 

5406 

" 

138 

100.73               ?                 79                   ? 

57-29 

5408 

" 

144 

107.46           127                 73 

88.19 

50.69 

5409 

" 

133 

100.76 

?                     67 

p 

50.76 

5410 

" 

139 

101.46 

5                 75 

p 

53-95 

5411 

" 

139 

101.46 

p 

73 

? 

52.52 

54U 

" 

146 

103.55 

? 

81 

? 

55.48 

5415 

" 

141 

102.92 

? 

74 

? 

52.46 

5418 

" 

144 

102.86 

143                84 

99-31 

58.33 

5423 

" 

143 

104.38 

131 

76 

91.61 

52.45 

5425 

" 

143 

104.38 

? 

63 

p 

44-05 

5426 

" 

144 

100.00 

? 

73 

? 

50.69 

Averages 



141 

102.60 

I3I-5 

74-2 

92.13           52.48 

5402 

fern. 

135 

102.27 

? 

72 

? 

53-33 

5405 

" 

131 

96.32 

114 

69 

87.02 

52.67 

54i6 

" 

129               96.99 

p 

62 

? 

48.06 

5420 

*  * 

138             100.73 

H3 

67 

81.81 

59-29 

5428 

" 

137               97.16 

123 

70 

89.78 

56.91 

Averages 

134               98.69 

116 

68               86.20 

54-05 

5404 

adol. 

115               87.79 

? 

62                   ?               53.91 

5407 

" 

125               93.28 

? 

66 

?                52.80 

5413 

*  * 

in               84.09 

105 

62 

94-59           53-86 

5417 

" 

121                94-53 

p 

67 

? 

55-37 

5421 

*  * 

114 

87.69 

in 

62 

97-37           54-39 

5424 

121 

87.68 

III 

65 

91-74           53.72 

Averages 

II7.8 

89.17 

109 

64 

94-56 

54-01 

5412 

inf. 

III 

79-53 

90 

54 

89.11 

53.46 

5422 

102                      80-95 

89 

50 

87-25 

49.02 

Averages 

106.5 

80.24 

89.5 

52 

88.18 

51.21 

higher,  54.05,  owing  to  the  low  bi-zygomatic  width.     The  adolescent 
index  is  about  the  same  as  the  female  (54.01).     Here  again  we  find 


228  AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

the  male  producing  a  specialized  form,  while  the  female  remains 
little  differentiated  from  the  adolescent. 

The  height  of  the  lower  jaw,  except  in  one  or  two  cases,  is  not  as 
great  as  one  would  expect  from  the  height  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
face.  Consequently,  the  total  facial  index  is  rather  low  (92.12  for 
males  and  86.20  for  females),  although  higher  than  in  other  Eskimo 
groups.  In  skull  5418  the  symphisial  height  of  the  mandible  is 
42  mm.,  the  upper  face  is  also  much  elongated,  so  that  the  total 
facial  length  nearly  equals  the  bi-zygomatic  breadth.  This  head  is 
a  good  example  of  the  extreme  individual  variations  we  occasionally 
find  in  the  Western  Eskimo,  although  the  majority  keep  reasonably 
close  to  the  racial  type.  The  adolescent  total  facial  index  (94.56) 
is  higher  than  that  of  the  adults. 

The  upper  facial  index  of  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo  does  not 
differ  much  from  that  of  the  Southampton  island  Eskimo,  as  given 
by  Hrdlicka.  Taking  the  average  of  the  adult  crania  of  both  sexes, 
twenty-one  Point  Barrow  skulls  give  an  average  index  of  53.09  and 
13  Southampton  island  skulls  give  52.65.  These  averages  again 
are  close  to  the  figures  given  for  eastern  crania  by  Duckworth  and 
Pain.  For  six  Labrador  and  Greenland  skulls  the  average  facial 
index  was  54.36.  This  leads  us  to  conclude  that  the  upper  facial 
index  is  another  constant  factor  in  the  various  Eskimo  branches. 
But  in  comparing  the  total  facial  (gonio-zygomatic)  index  we  find 
an  increase  in  the  west,  due  to  the  increase  in  total  facial  height 
in  that  quarter.  Six  male  Point  Barrow  skulls  have  an  average 
height  from  chin  to  nasion  of  131.5  mm.  as  contrasted  with  six 
male  Southampton  island  crania,  which  give  a  total  facial  length 
of  126  mm.  (The  number  of  male  crania  with  mandibles  happens 
in  both  groups  to  be  the  same.)  Since  the  approximation  between 
the  head  and  skull  measurements  for  facial  indices  has  been  found 
to  be  close,  we  may  compare  these  measurements  with  those  of 
Stone  on  living  Alaskan  natives,  making  allowance  for  a  small 
variation  (2.2,  Boas,  for  Eastern  Eskimo).  Kukpagmuit  (Mac 
kenzie  river  Eskimo),  males,  facial  height,  131.5  mm.,  which  is  the 
same  as  the  skull  measurement  for  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo 
males;  Nunatagmuit  (interior  Alaskan  Eskimo),  126.4  mm.; 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO 


Tahltan  (northwest  coast  Indian),  129.2  mm.;  Loucheux  (interior 
Alaskan  Indian),  122.9  mm. 

The  female  measurements  are  Point  Barrow  (skull)  116  mm.; 
Kukpagmuit  (head),  120.8  mm.;  Nunatagmuit,  119.8  mm.;  Tahltan, 
118.7  mm. 

Nasal  Index. — Broca  considered  the  nasal  index  one  of  the  best 
for  distinguishing  the  various  races  of  mankind.  It  is  particularly 

TABLE  7 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  as  to  Form:  Facial  Measurements  (Con.} 


Nasal 

Nasal 

Nasal 

Palatal 

Palatal 

Palatal 

Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Height 

Width 

Index 

Length 

Width 

Index 

5400 

male 

57 

23 

40-35 

56 

70 

125.00 

5401 

" 

58 

25 

43.10 

? 

? 

? 

5403 

" 

56 

23 

41.07 

50 

63 

118.87 

5406 

" 

58 

21 

30-21 

50 

63 

118.87 

5408 

" 

57 

25 

43-86 

5i 

62 

121.57 

5409 

" 

56 

29 

39-62 

48 

58 

120.83 

5410 

" 

56 

19 

33-93 

5i 

56 

I09.8O 

S4II 

" 

57 

22 

38.60 

56 

65 

II6.O7 

5414 

" 

59 

26 

44.07 

56 

70 

I25.0O 

5415 

54 

23 

42.59 

53 

67 

126.42 

5418 

62 

25 

40-32 

59 

63 

106.78 

5423 

11 

55 

22 

40.00 

54 

65 

120.37 

5425 

" 

52 

25 

48.08 

53 

59 

111.32 

5426 

" 

59 

23 

38.98 

50 

60 

120.00 

Averages 



56.6 

23 

40.69 

53-1 

62.7 

II8.3I 

5402 

fern. 

54 

22 

40.74 

53 

63              118.87 

5405 

" 

55 

24 

43.64              50 

59              118.00 

54i6 

" 

52 

2O 

38.46             47 

61 

129.79 

5420 

" 

So 

24 

48.00             49 

60 

122.45 

5428 

5i                19 

37-25 

49 

60              122.45 

Averages 

52-4 

21.8 

41.62 

49.6 

60.6 

122.78 

5404 

adol. 

47 

20 

42.55 

48 

61 

127.08 

5407 

" 

Si 

20 

39-22 

48 

60 

125.00 

5413 

•  4 

46 

20 

43-48 

40 

55 

137-50 

5417 

•  1 

53 

22 

41.51 

49 

61 

124.49 

5421 

41 

46 

21 

45.65 

48 

58 

120.83 

5424 

49 

21 

42.86            48 

62 

129.17 

Averages       

48.6 

2O.6 

42.545 

46.8 

59-5 

127-345 

5412             inf. 

40                 17 

42.50 

37 

50 

135-13 

5422 

42                 17 

40.48 

37 

Si 

137.87 

Averages       

41                 17 

41-49             37 

5Q-5 

136.50 

230  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

valuable  in  the  case  of  the  Eskimo,  in  that  it  distinguishes  them  from 
the  Mongolian  type,  whom  they  resemble  in  many  other  respects. 
The  Eskimo  are  the  most  leptorrhine  of  known  races,  with  a  nasal 
index  of  42.33  (Broca).  The  Point  Barrow  tribe  have  not  lost  this 
distinctly  Eskimo  trait.  In  fact,  their  nasal  index  is  slightly  lower 
than  that  of  the  Southampton  island  Eskimo.  The  Point  Barrow 
male  crania  in  our  series  have  a  nasal  index  of  40.69  and  the  female 
of  41.62  (see  Table  7);  the  Southampton  island  skulls  have  a  nasal 
index  of  42.3  for  males  and  45.8  for  females.  The  Labrador  and 
Greenland  skulls  measured  by  Duckworth  and  Pain  gave  an  average 
nasal  index  of  45.55.  There  is  a  larger  individual  variation  in  the 
western  group  than  in  the  others  (see Table  of  Variations1).  One 
Point  Barrow  skull  gives  an  index  as  low  as  33.93.  This  does  not 
mean  necessarily  that  the  Western  Eskimo  is  a  less  pure  type.  The 
same  causes  which  led  to  an  increase  of  stature,  a  more  certain  and 
abundant  food  supply  during  the  period  of  growth  and  improved 
conditions,  may  have  also  increased  the  variation  in  other  character 
istic  racial  traits.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  nasal  index  the  females 
again  are  nearer  the  adolescent  type.  (Males  40.69;  females  41.62; 
adolescents  42.54.) 

Orbital  Index. — The  high  value  of  the  orbital  index  is  another 
racial  characteristic  of  the  Eskimo,  which  it  shares  with  the  Indians 
of  North  America  and  the  yellow  race  of  Asia,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  low  nasal  index,  which  differentiates  them  from  both.  At 
the  same  time  the  Eskimo  eye  differs  in  appearance  from  the  Mon 
golian. 

The  megasemic  character  of  the  Eskimo  orbits  in  the  adult  is 
regarded  by  Duckworth  and  Pain  as  the  retention  of  an  infantile 
trait.  This  conclusion  appears  to  be  well  borne  out  in  the  male 
skulls  in  the  present  series  and  in  Hrdlicka's  measurements  of  the 
Southampton  islanders.  The  index  of  the  female  skulls  in  the 
Point  Barrow  group  falls  slightly  under  megaseme  (88.938)  for  the 
right  and  88.156  for  the  left  orbital  index  (see  Table  8).  The 
sexual  variation  of  the  orbital  index  is  considerable,  due  largely 
to  the  greater  development  of  the  supra-orbital  ridges  in  the  male, 

1  Duckworth  and  Pain.     Contribution  to  Eskimo  Craniology,  p.  129. 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO 


TABLE  8 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  as  to  Form:  Facial  Measurements  (Con.} 


Orbital  Height 

Orbital  Width 

Orbital  Index 

Cat.  No.             Sex 

Right                Left 

Right 

Left 

Right 

Left 

5400 

male 

37 

38 

43-5 

43-5 

85.06 

87-36 

5401 

37                  39 

40-5 

40.5 

91.36 

96.30 

5403                                37                 37 

41 

41 

90.24 

90.24 

5406 

36 

38 

38 

38.5 

54-74 

98.70 

5408 

38 

38.5 

41.2 

44 

92.23 

87.50 

5409 

39 

38 

41 

41 

95.12 

92.68 

5410 

38 

37-5 

40 

40 

95.00 

93-75 

54ii                               35-2             35-5 

39-5 

40 

89.01 

88.75 

54*4 

36.5             37-5 

43 

41-5 

84.88 

90-30 

54i5 

'  * 

39                 38 

39-2 

40 

99-50 

95-00 

S4i8 

" 

37                 37 

40.2 

43 

92-03 

86.05 

5423 

38.2 

38.2 

41.2 

41.2 

92.68 

92.68 

5425 

37-5 

37-5 

4i-5 

44 

90.36 

85-23 

5426 

39-5 

39-5 

43 

42.5 

91.86 

92.94 

5864 

37                38 

42 

42 

88.10 

90.48 

Averages 



37.46 

37-74 

40.98 

41.58 

91.47 

91.20 

5402 

fem.            39                37 

41-5 

41-5 

93.98 

89.16 

5405 

37 

37 

40 

40 

92.50 

92.50 

54i6 

" 

34                 34 

40.5 

40-5 

83.95 

83-95 

5420 

" 

35                 34-5 

41 

41 

85-37 

84.15 

5428 

" 

36           j      35-5              40-5 

39 

88.89 

91.02 

Averages 

36.2             35.6             40.7 

40.4 

88.938 

88.156 

5404 

adol. 

34                 34                 39 

39 

87.18 

87.18 

5407 

37                 37                 38 

39-5              97-37 

93-68 

5413 

37-5 

36                36 

35-8 

104.17 

100.55 

5417 

35-8              35-8              37 

37 

96.60 

96.60 

542i 

35                 35                 36 

36 

97.22 

97.22 

5424 

36.5              36.5              36.5 

39 

IOO.OO 

93-59 

Aveiages 

35-96           35-71            37.08 

37-71 

97.09 

94.80 

5412 

inf.             34 

35                 33 

33 

103.03 

106.06 

5422 

33-5 

34-5 

35 

33-5 

96.72 

103.03 

Averages 

33-75 

34-75 

34 

33.25           99-875 

104-545 

and  the  greater  width  of  the  male  orbits.  The  orbits  in  the  female 
skulls  are  rounder  and  less  irregular  than  those  in  the  male  skulls. 
The  proportion  of  height  and  breadth  of  the  orbits  is  nearly  equal 
in  the  adolescent  crania,  and  the  height  exceeds  the  width  in  the 
infantile  skulls.  The  depth  of  the  orbits  is  remarkable  in  all  the 
crania.  The  variation  of  the  right  and  left  orbits  in  individual 
skulls  is  noticeable,  the  difference  being  mainly  in  width. 


232 


AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


Palatal  Index. — The  palate  of  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo  is 
characterized  by  extreme  breadth.  In  this  racial  feature  they 
slightly  exceed  the  Central  Eskimo.  The  present  series  gives  a 
palatal  (external)  index  of  118.31  for  males  and  122.7  f°r  females, 
and  the  Southampton  island  Eskimo  118.8  for  males  and  120  for 
females  (Hrdlicka).  Within  the  Point  Barrow  series  there  is  an 
occasional  skull  in  which  the  palate  is  longer  and  narrower  than  the 
average.  (Two  male  skulls  give  a  palatal  index  of  106.78  and  109.80.) 
But  the  general  tendency  is  to  a  very  broad  palate.  The  palate  of 
the  adolescent  and  infantile  crania  is  relatively  shorter  than  that  of 
the  adults,  but  partakes  of  the  characteristic  horseshoe  shape. 

The  Mandible. — The  mandible  of  the  Eskimo  is  characterized 
by  extreme  bi-condylar  width  as  is  brought  out  in  the  mandibular 

TABLE  9 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Measurements  of  Mandible 


Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Condylo 
Symphisial 
Length  (A) 

Bi-Condy- 
lar  Width 
(B) 

Mandibular 
Index  (A/B) 

Condylo 
Coronoid 
Width  (C) 

Coronoid 
Index  (C/A) 

5400 
5401 
5403 
5408 
5418 
5423 
58641 

male 

lip 
125 
106 
130 
129 

121 
122 

122 
123 

108 

122 

123 

126 
127 

97-54 
101.63 
98.15 
106.56 
104.88 
96.03 
96.06 

48 
50 
40 
50 
48 
48 
41 

40-34 
40-65 
37.04 
38.46 
37-21 
39-66 
33-88 

Averages 

121.71 

121.57 

100.15 

46.4 

39-75 

5405 
5420 
5428 

fern. 

102 
102 
H3 

114 
I2O 

118 

89.47 
85.00 
95-76 

40 

42 
42 

39-22 

41.18 
37-17 

Averages 

105.6 

117.3 

90.476 

41-3 

39-19 

5413 
542i 
5424 

adol. 

93 
102 

93 

103 
98 
104 

90.29 
104.08 
89.42 

36 
38 

39 

38.71 
40.86 
38.24 

Averages 

96 

101.6 

94.596 

37-6 

39-27 

5412 
5422 

inf. 

79 
87 

90 
88 

87.78 
98.86 

30 
33 

37-97 
.  37-93 

Averages 

'•• 

83 

89 

93-27 

31-5 

37-95 

Skull  5864  belongs  to  complete  skeleton  (see  measurements  of  long  bones). 


AMERICAN    ANTHROPOLOGIST 


N.    S.,    VOL.    18,    PL.    XV 


POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO  MANDIBLES:  A,  ADULT  FEMALE,  B,  ADULT  MALE,  SHOWING 
EXTENSIVE  EXOSTOSES  FOR  MUSCULAR  ATTACHMENT  AND  STRENGTHENING  OF  THE  ALVE 
OLAR  PROCESS;  C,  INFANTILE;  D,  ADOLESCENT;  E,  ADULT  FEMALE;  F,  ADULT  MALE 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      233 


TABLE  10 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Additional  Measurements  of  Mandible 


Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Bigon. 
Width  (D) 

Prop. 
(B/D) 

Condylo 
Symphysial 
Height 

Symphisial 
Height 

Minimum  Breadth 
Ascending  Ramus 

Right 

Left 

5400 

5401 
5403 
5408 
54i8 
5423 
5864 

male 

116 
US 
98 
106 

112 

108 
H3 

95.08 
93-50 
90.74 
86.89 
91.06 
85.71 
88.98 

63 
60 
49 
66 
63 
65 
65 

36 

? 

27 
39 
42 
34 
34 

44 
34 
39 
37 
42 
40 
38 

45 
36 

38 
•? 

40 
40 
37 

Averages 

109.7 

90.28 

61.5              35-3 

39-1 

39-3 

5404 
5420 
5428 

fern. 

97 
109 
97 

85.09 
90.83 
82.20 

58 
58 
59 

30 

25(?) 

35 

37 
34 
36 

38 
33 
36 

Averages 

101 

86.04 

58.3              30 

35-6 

35-6 

5413 
5421 
5424 

adol. 

84 
89 

101 

81.55 
90.82 
97.12 

49 
47 
52 

25 
30 
29 

33 
32-5 
33 

33 
31 
32 

Averages       

91-3 

89-83 

49-3              28 

32.8 

32 

5412              inf. 
5422 

78 

75 

86.67 
85.23 

41 
41 

23 

21 

25 
28 

26 
29 

Averages 

76.5 

85.95                  41                        22 

26.5 

27-5 

index  (see  Tables  9  and  10).  The  ascending  rami  are  broad  and 
heavy  and  the  coronoid  processes  low  and  stout.  The  extent  of  the 
condylo-coronoid  width  gives  additional  leverage  to  the  temporal 
muscle.  The  surface  roughenings  for  muscular  attachment  are 
very  prominent  (pi.  xv),  the  area  for  the  insertion  of  the  masseter 
and  pterygoid  muscles  being  very  extensive. 

The  extraordinary  pressure  to  which  the  jaw  is  subjected  has 
led  to  an  accessory  thickening  in  the  alveolar  process  at  the  second 
molar.  This  occurs  in  the  adolescent  and  infantile  jaws  as  well  as 
the  adult,  so  it  probably  is  an  inherited  trait.  One  of  the  male 
mandibles  (fig.  26)  exhibits  a  diseased  condition,  which  has  resulted 
in  atrophy  of  the  alveolar  and  coronoid  processes  and  a  shriveling 
of  one  side  of  the  jaw.  The  skull  is  similarly  affected  at  the  base  and 


234 


AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


rendered  asymmetrical  by  adjustment  to  the  disproportionate  posi 
tion  of  the  mandible. 

Dentition. — Although  the  Eskimo  mandible  is  exceedingly  heavy 
and  strong,  the  teeth  are  not  unusually  large  (see  dental  index) 
(Table  n).  They  exhibit  very  primitive  and  at  the  same  time  cer- 


i,, 


FIG.  26.  Side  view  of  Point  Barrow  skull,  showing  obliquity  of  the  angles  of 
the  mandible  and  slight  asymmetry  of  the  basal  portion  of  the  cranium,  due  to 
diseased  condition  of  the  bone. 

tain  advanced  traits.  The  incisors  meet  edge  to  edge  as  in  the 
apes,  and  the  fifth  tubercle  is  often  present  on  the  second  lower 
molar;  another  simian  characteristic.  On  the  other  hand,  the  true 
molars  decrease  in  size  from  front  to  back,  as  in  the  higher  races, 
and  the  third  molar  is  more  often  suppressed  or  degenerate  than  in 
any  other  savage  people  (see  Table  12) .  The  canines  do  not  overlap, 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      2$$ 


TABLE  n 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Dentition 


Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Dental  Length 

Basinasal  Length 

Dental  Index' 

5400 

male 

43 

104 

41-35 

5406 

*  * 

43 

101 

42.57 

S4II 

" 

44 

108 

40.74 

5414 

38 

108 

35-19 

5415 

42 

116 

36.21 

5418 

*  ' 

46 

105 

43.81 

5423 

" 

43 

107 

40.19 

5425 

'  * 

36 

107 

34.64 

5864 

45 

99 

45-45 

Averages 

42.2 

106,1 

40.01 

5402 

fem. 

4i 

102 

40.20 

5405 

" 

4i 

98 

41.84 

54i6 

" 

39   (?) 

101 

38.61 

5420 

'  ' 

40 

98 

40.82 

5428 

" 

38   (?) 

97 

39.18 

Averages 

39-8 

99-2 

40.13 

as  in  the  anthropoids  and  higher  races  of  man,  but  meet  edge  to  edge, 
and  wear  on  a  level  with  the  incisors.  The  direction  of  the  wear  is 
oblique,  being  inward  on  the  upper  jaw,  and  outward  on  the  lower. 
The  inclination  is  due  to  the  outer  margins  of  the  central  lateral 
teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  inner 
sides  of  the  opposing  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  during  the  grinding 
sideways  movements  of  the  mandible  (Knowles).  The  extremely 
tough  nature  of  the  Eskimo  food,  much  of  which  is  eaten  raw  or 
dried,  renders  the  rotary  chewing  process  much  more  necessary 
than  in  other  savage  races  that  live  almost  entirely  on  fresh  meat. 
The  fondness  of  the  Eskimo  for  chewing  tough  skin  of  the  whale  or 
mukluk  (big  seal),  and  the  regular  work  of  the  women  in  chewing 
boot  soles  and  skins,  increases  this  tendency. 

The  crowns  of  all  the  teeth  are  heavy,  even  the  canine  approach 
ing  the  premolar  in  shape.  In  the  molars  an  additional  tubercle  is 
often  present,  and  occasionally  an  accessory  one.  The  third  molar 
frequently  takes  on  a  foliated  appearance,  with  additional  small 
tubercles  (see  cuspid  formulae). 


AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST 


[N.  s.,  18,  1916 


TABLE  12 

ESKIMO  CRANIA  FROM  POINT  BARROW,  ALASKA 
Dentition 


Cat.  No. 

Sex 

Teeth 

Cuspid  Formulae  of  Molars 

Upper 

Lower 

Upper 

Lower 

5400 

male 

16 

16 

right  4  ?  3  left  443 

right  444  left  444 

5403* 

" 

? 

14* 

"       ???"??? 

4  4  *      '44* 

54o6f 

11 

14* 

'       4  ?  *     "    4  4  * 

541  if 

" 

16 

1       ?   ?   ?     "    4  4  3 

S4i4t 

" 

16 

.  . 

443       '     ?    ?  3 

S4iSt 

" 

14* 

4  4  *      '43* 

S4i8 

" 

16 

16 

44?      '443 

"       ?   ?   ?     "    4  4  3 

5423 

" 

iSa 

16 

4       ?    ?  *     "     ?  4  4 

?   ?  3       '     ?  4  3 

5425t 

" 

16 

molars  worn  level 

5426f 

" 

16 

.  . 

molars  missing 

5864 

" 

16 

16 

434  left  435 

"      4  4  50   "    4  4  5b 

S402f 

fern. 

16 

"      4  ?   ?     "    4  3   ? 

5405 

" 

16 

14* 

"      4   ?  sc  "    4  3  5c 

"      4  5  *     "    4  5  * 

S4i6f 

" 

I5a 

"       4   ?   ?     "    4  4  * 

5420 

" 

16 

? 

?  3  Sc  "     ?   ?   ? 

"       ???"??  4 

5428 

" 

16 

16 

?  4  5      '43? 

445      '    4   ?  5 

5404t 

adol. 

14 

"4             "4 

S407t 

" 

i6d 

445      '44? 

5413 

" 

14 

14 

44          '44 

"      45         "45 

54i?t 

11 

i6d 

"       4  3   ?     "    4  3   ? 

5421 

" 

14 

14 

45          '45 

"55         "55 

5424 

it 

14 

14 

43           '43 

55          '55 

5412 

inf. 

126 

126 

"       44         "44 

"55         "55 

5424 

" 

126 

126 

54          '54 

55          '55 

*  Third  molar  missing. 

t  Lower  jaw  missing. 

a  Third  molar  missing  on  one  side. 

b  Supernumary  cusp  on  third  molar. 

c  Crown  foliated,  presenting  extra  small  cusps. 

d  Third  molar  visible,  but  not  fully  erupted. 

e  All  teeth  of  first  dentition,  and  first  molars  of  second. 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  OTHER  SKELETAL  PARTS  THAN  THE  CRANIA 

IN  THREE  ESKIMO  SKELETONS  FROM  POINT  BARROW. 

(RALPH  LINTON) 

Sternum  and  Ribs. — The  sterna  in  both  skeletons  examined  are 
asymmetrical,  the  supersternal  notch  being  to  the  left  of  the  median 
line.  The  pre-mesosternal  suture  slopes  downward  from  left  to 
right,  whereas  the  supersternal  notch  slopes  from  right  to  left. 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      237 

The  asymmetry  of  the  manubrium  is  indicated  in  the  following 
measurements. 

INFRA  MARGIN  OF  THE  CLAVICULAR  FACET  TO  THE  MESOSTERNAL  SUTURE 

5864  (male)  5429  (fern.) 

Right  Left  Right  Left 

37-5  40  38  41 

EDGE  OF  MESOSTERNAL  SUTURE  TO  MIDDLE  OF  INTERCLAVICULAR  NOTCH 

Right  Left  Right  Left 

48.5  45.2  49  47-2 

TRANSVERSE  DIAMETER  OF  THE  CLAVICULAR  FACETS 

Right  Left  Right  Left 

17  16  22.1  21 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  asymmetry  of  the  manubrium 
is  proportional  in  both  skeletons.  The  depression  of  the  right  side, 
however,  appears  to  be  confined  to  it.  The  levels  of  articulation 
with  the  ribs,  the  costal  facets,  are  noticeably  higher  on  the  right 
side  than  on  the  left,  not  only  as  regards  the  upper  facets,  as  is  more 
usual  (Thompson),  but  in  the  case  of  the  lower  as  well. 

The  same  causes  which  led  to  asymmetry  of  the  manubrium 
have  also  led  to  a  corresponding  lengthening  of  the  right  first  rib 
and  clavicle.  In  both  skeletons  the  right  clavicle  is  four  mm. 
longer  than  the  left,  and  the  first  rib  from  one  to  five  mm.  longer 
on  the  right  than  the  left.  The  contraction  of  the  left  side  has 
resulted  in  a  thickening  of  the  bones  and  an  increase  of  their  curve 
with  a  corresponding  diminution  of  the  curve  in  those  on  the  right 
side.1 


1  The  depression  of  the  right  shoulder,  and  resultant  changes  already  noted  are 
not  confined  to  any  one  race.  It  has  been  noted  in  the  white  race  and  is  said  to  be 
caused  by  carrying  heavy  objects  on  the  right  shoulder,  or  more  particularly  in  the 
right  hand.  The  heavy  harpoon  and  dog  whip  which  the  Eskimo  are  accustomed  to 
carry  in  the  right  hand,  as  well  as  the  more  extended  use  of  the  same,  may  have  caused 
an  exaggeration  of  this  tendency. 

A  curious  anomaly  is  the  existence  of  a  thirteenth  rib  in  connection  with  an 
additional  thoracic  vertebra  in  5864.  It  may  have  been  present  in  5429  also,  as  this 
skeleton  had  the  additional  vertebra,  but  is  now  incomplete. 

The  thirteenth  rib  occurs  on  both  sides,  the  length  being  89  mm.  for  the  right  and 
87.5  for  the  left.  They  are  roughened  for  muscular  attachment  and  the  articular  facets 
are  large  and  well  developed.  In  shape,  and  the  arrangement  of  bony  protuberances, 
they  agree  with  the  twelfth  rib  of  normal  individuals.  In  both  5864  and  5429  the 
twelfth  rib  is  abnormally  long  (in  5864  156  mm.  for  the  right  and  152  mm.  for  the  left) 
and  its  tip  deeply  pitted  for  the  attachment  of  cartilage. 


238  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

In  5864  ossification  has  not  yet  taken  place  between  the  first 
and  second  parts  of  the  mesosternum,  nor  between  it  and  the  manu- 
brium,  but  is  complete  between  the  second  and  third  part  of  the 
mesosternum,  indicating  that  the  skeleton  is  that  of  a  young  adult. 
In  5429  ossification  is  complete  in  the  mesosternum  and  partial 
between  the  mesosternum  and  manubrium,  indicating  an  advanced 
age.  In  5864  the  xiphisternum  is  ossified,  but  is  not  yet  attached 
to  the  body  of  the  sternum.  5429  is  much  broader,  heavier,  and 
thicker  than  5864,  as  the  following  measurements  show. 

STERNUM,  NOT  INCLUDING  XIPHISTERNUM 

Total  Length  (Median  Line) 
5864  158 

5429  155 

Manubrium 

Max.  Length  Max.  Width  Max.  Thickness 

5864  39.5  63.5  12 

5429  43  63.5  15 

Mesosternum 

5864  116.5  38  ii 

5429  112  45  13 

Vertebra. — In  the  case  of  the  vertebrae  there  are  only  two  spines 
available  for  study.  The  vertebrae  of  both  are  well  developed  as 
to  strength.  In  5429  there  are  marginal  exostoses,  and  the  laminae 
and  spinous  process  of  the  fifth  lumbar  vertebra  are  separate,  ar 
ticulating  with  the  proximal  part  of  the  arch.  The  same  anomaly 
has  been  noted  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  lumbar  vertebrae  of  a  specimen 
from  Smith  sound  described  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka.  In  addition  the 
lateral  spine  on  the  right  side  of  the  second  lumbar  vertebra  is 
separate,  and  there  is  a  facet  present  for  its  articulation.  The 
thirteenth  thoracic  vertebra  is  present  in  both  specimens;  and  has 
been  described  at  length  elsewhere  (see  Occurrence  of  an  Extra 
Vertebra  in  the  Eskimo) .  Except  for  this  peculiarity  5864  is  normal 
in  every  way. 

The  indices  of  the  five  lumbar  vertebrae  (taken  according  to 
Cunningham)  are  as  follows: — 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      239 

Cat.  No.  5429  5864 

Sex  fem.(?)  male 

1  118.18  120 

2  106.25  107.69 

3  108.70  96.43 

4  91.67  91.08 

5  82  85.71 
Lumbo-vertebral  index..  .  .100.84                                      99-6 

The  later  of  these  two  indices  differs  by  only  .1  from  that  given 
by  Cunningham  as  the  average  for  the  Eskimo.  In  respect  to  the 
lumbar  curve,  the  Eskimo  occupies  a  position  about  midway  between 
the  European  and  the  primitive  peoples,  such  as  the  Australians, 
Bushmen,  etc.  The  environmental  factors  which  might  lead  to  this 
have  already  been  dealt  with  (see  Occurrence  of  an  Extra  Verte 
bra  in  the  Eskimo). 

Innominate  Bone. — The  innominate  bones  are  strong  and  well 
developed,  but  in  no  way  depart  from  normal.  The  measurements 

are  as  follows :— 

0 

Cat.  No.  5864  5863  5429 

Sex male  fern.  fem.(?) 

right      left  left  right 

Height  (max.) 238        235  205  206 

Breadth  (max.) 171         170  150  160 

Index 71.85     72.34  73.17  77.67 

Sacrum. — The  anterior  curve  of  the  sacrum  is  slight,  and  begins 
at  the  body  of  the  second  segment.  The  wall  of  the  spinal  canal  is 
deficient  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  segment.  The  normal 
five  segments  are  present,  and  there  is  no  indication  that  the  first 
sacral  vertebra  has  become  detached  to  form  a  sixth  lumbar  at  the 
same  time  that  the  first  coccygeal  has  become  ossified  to  the 
sacrum,  as  was  the  case  in  the  two  spines  containing  an  additional 
vertebra  described  by  Lane.1 

Cat.  No.  Sex  Height  (max.)          Breadth  (max  )  Index 

5864  male  124  120  96.77 

Scapula. — The  scapulae  are  remarkable  for  their  length  and  nar 
rowness,  corresponding  closely  to  those  from  Smith  sound  described 
by  Hrdlicka. 

1  W.  Arbuthnot  Lane,  "Some  Variations  in  the  Human  Skeleton,"  Journal  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,  Vol.  20,  Third  Part,  April,  1886. 
16 


24O  AMERICAN   ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

The  scapular  and  infrascapular  indices  corresponded  fairly  well 
with  those  given  by  Flower.1  These  indices  form  a  marked  ex 
ception  to  the  primitive  traits  usually  found  in  Eskimo  skeletons, 
for  they  are  at  the  other  extreme  from  those  of  the  anthropoids, 
while  the  indices  of  Europeans  occupy  a  position  about  midway 
between. 

The  right  glenoid  fossa  of  5864  is  larger  than  the  left,  the  di 
mensions  being  42x28.2  and  42x27.1,  respectively. 

In  all  the  scapulae  examined,  the  superior  border  forms  a  deep, 
almost  U-shaped  notch,  the  characteristic  being  most  exaggerated 
in  5864  and  least  so  in  5429,  in  which  the  suprascapular  notch  is 
well  marked.  This  concavity  of  the  superior  border  of  the  scapula 
appears  to  be  a  racial  characteristic,  being  more  .or  less  common 
throughout  all  the  Eskimo  groups.  It  rarely  occurs  in  whites  or 
Indians.  The  scapulae  of  a  gorilla  in  the  Wistar  Institute  collection 
shows  this  same  concavity,  the  resemblance  being  striking.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  did  not  occur  in  any  of  eight  orang  utan  skeletons 
examined.  The  cause  of  this  anomaly  is  not  evident  in  the  culture 
of  the  Eskimo,  and  it  may  well  be  an  inherited  evolutionary  trait. 

Clavicle. — Special  mention  has  been  made  elsewhere  of  the 
lengthening  and  strengthening  of  the  clavicle  on  the  right  side  in 
connection  with  asymmetry  of  the  first  rib.  The  bones  are  other 
wise  normal,  being  fairly  strong,  with  roughenings  for  muscular 
attachment  well,  but  not  excessively  developed. 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male)  5429  (Fern.?) 

Right         Left  Right  Left 

Length 168         164  144  140 

Humerus. — The  humeri  of  5863  were  both  perforated  in  the 
olecranon  fossa,  the  openings  being  of  fair  size,  and  the  left  larger 
than  the  right.  This  seems  to  be  a  primitive,  although  scarcely 
simian  characteristic,  being  of  more  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
anthropoids  than  in  man,  and  in  the  ancient  than  the  modern 
races.  Even  in  the  anthropoids  it  is  an  individual  variation.  Its 
most  frequent  occurrence  among  human  beings  is  in  prehistoric 


1  W.  H.  Flower  and  Dr.  J.  G.  Garson,  "Scapular  Index  as  a  Race  Character  in 
Man,"  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  Vol.  14,  Fart  i,  October,  1879. 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      24! 

Indian  skeletons  from  Arizona,  in  one  collection  of  which  no  less 
than  54  per  cent,  had  one  or  both  humeri  perforated.1  It  is  not 
common  in  any  living  race,  but  occurs  oftener  among  primitive 
peoples  than  it  does  among  Europeans. 

In  5863  the  exostoses  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  are  well 
developed. 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male)  5863  (Fern.) 

Right        Left  Right  Left 

Max.  length 297  293 

Ant.  post.  diam.  at  middle 27            26  19  19 

Lateral  diam.  at  middle 19             19  14  14 

Index  at  middle 73-O8  73-68  73.68 

Humero  femoral  index 68.85       67.28  73-69  72.70 

Radius. — The  radii  are  strongly  built,  but  perfectly  normal. 
The  radio-humeral  index  agreed  fairly  well  with  that  given  by 
Hrdlicka,  although  the  absolute  measurements  were  somewhat 
greater. 

RADIUS  (MEASUREMENTS) 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male)  5863  (Fern.) 

Right  Left  Right 

Max.  length 252  247  213 

Radio-humeral  index 75-OO       75.07  71.71 

ULNA 

Cat.  No.  5864  '.Male)  5863  (Fern.) 

Max.  length 270          271  233 

Femur. — In  5864  the  femora  are  powerfully  built,  and  exceed  in 
length  the  average  for  both  whites  and  Indians.  The  longest  femur 
among  the  specimens  from  Smith  sound  described  by  Hrdlicka  was 
467,  while  the  average  for  males  was  380.9,  as  opposed  to  489  in  this 
specimen.  5863  also  exceeds  either  of  the  adult  females  described 
by  him,  being  403,  as  opposed  to  386  for  the  larger  of  his  specimens, 
which  he  expressly  states  was  fairly  tall  for  an  individual  from  the 
eastern  group.  This  length  is  the  more  remarkable  in  that  the 
femora  in  question  (5863)  have  an  excessive  forward  curve,  and  very 
heavy  shaft.  The  entire  surface  of  the  bone  is  slightly  roughened, 
and  the  gluteal  ridge  and  linea  aspera  are  excessively  developed, 
giving  the  specimens  a  disproportionate  anterior  posterior  diameter 
at  the  middle.  The  whole  appearance  of  the  bone  is  very  primitive. 

1  Dr.  D.  S.  Lamb,  "The  Olecranon  Perforation,"  American  Anthropologist,  Vol. 
III..  1890. 


242  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male)  5863  (Fern.) 

Right          Left  Right  Lett 

Max.  length 488  489  403  403 

Ant.  post.  diam.  at  middle  (A) 32  32  31  30 

Lat.  diam.  at  middle  (B) 30  29  24  23 

Index  (B/A) 93.75  90.63  77.42  76.67 

Min.  ant.  post  diam.  at  greatest  expanse  of 

upper  flattening  (C) 30  29  24  23 

Min.  lateral  diam.  at  upper  flattening  (A)  .   36  35.5  29  28 

Index  of  flattening  (C/D) 83.33  81.67  82.75  82.07 

Tibia. — The  tibiae  in  both  cases  are  quite  normal,  although  in 
5863  the  oblique  line  is  strongly  developed  and  the  entire  surface 
slightly  roughened,  as  in  the  femora  of  this  specimen.  The  length 
of  the  tibiae  of  5864  is  somewhat  above  the  average  for  white  males, 
although  that  of  5863  is  slightly  below  the  figures  given  for  white 
females.  In  the  former  the  right  tibia  is  8  mm.  longer  than  the 
left.  The  tibio-femoral  index  was  above  84,  thus  showing  a  greater 
proportional  length  of  tibia  than  in  the  Smith  sound  group,  or  even 
whites.  The  anterior  posterior  diameters  were  also  found  to  be 
somewhat  greater  than  for  whites  of  corresponding  sexes.  This 
shows  a  considerable  variation  from  the  Smith  sound  group,  in 
which  they  were  less.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  that  the  Alaskan 
Eskimo  have  much  longer  and  stronger  legs  than  their  eastern 
relatives,  a  difference  which  can  be  easily  accounted  for  by  their 
habit  of  taking  long  hunting  expeditions  on  foot,  and  by  their  use 
of  the  roomy  umiak  instead  of  the  kayak,  which  cramps  the  legs. 
A  more  certain  and  plentiful  supply  of  food  during  the  period  of 
growth  may  also  be  an  important  factor  in  insuring  a  good  develop 
ment  of  the  long  bones. 

TIBIA  (MEASUREMENTS) 

Cat.  No.  5864' (Male)  5863  (Fern.) 

Right  '         Left  Right          Left 

Max.  length 415  407  341  341 

Ant.  post.  diam.  at  middle  (A) 32            31  27  28 

Lat.  diam.  at  middle  (B) 24            22.5  17.5  18 

Index  (B/A) 75-oo       72.58  62.11  64.29 

Tibio-femoral  index 85.04       83.39  84.61  84.61 

Max.  ant.  post.  diam.  at  nutritive  fora 
men  (C) 35  34  28.5  29 

Max.  lat.  diam.  at  nutritive  foramen  (D) ..  27.5  25.5  19  18 

Index  (D/C) ..                                                    .  78.5?  75-Oo  66.66  62.07 


HAWKES]    SKELETAL  MEASUREMENTS,  POINT  BARROW  ESKIMO      243 

Fibula. — The  fibulae  are  well  developed.  In  both  cases  they  are 
slightly  longer  on  the  left  than  on  the  right  side,  thus  disagreeing 
with  Hrdlicka's  observations,  according  to  which  the  bone  was 
longer  on  the  right. 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male)  5863  (Fern.) 

Max.  length 399          403  326          327 

PATELLAE 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male) 

Righi  Left 

Length 46  45.5 

Breadth 49  48 

Thickness 20  21 

Os  CALCIS 

Cat.  No.  5864  (Male) 

Right  Left 

Height  at   middle  between  eleva 
tions 45.5  44 

Breadth  at  middle  minimum 29  28 

No.  of  facets  for  the  astragalus ....   3  3 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
J.  BERNARD  DAVIS 

Thesaurus  Craniorum.     (Small  number  of  Eskimo  crania  from  various  sections.) 
F.  VIRCHOW 

Crania  Ethnica  Americana.     (Labrador  Crania,  also  study  of  child's  cranium.) 
EMIL  BESSELS 

Einige  Worte  iiber  des  Inuit  des  Smith  Sunder  nebst  Bemerkungen  iiber  Inuit 
Schadel.     (Archiv  fur  Anthropologie,   Band  VIII,    1875,   p.   107.)     (Large 
number  of  cranial  measurements,  but  no  sexual  distinction.) 
FRANZ  BOAS 

(a)  Physical  types  of  the  Indians  of  Canada  (Archaeological  Report,  Toronto, 

1906,  p.  84).     (Valuable  comparison  of  Eskimo  and  Indian  types.) 
(6)  Stone's  measurements  of  Natives  of  North  West  Territories  (Bulletin  of 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,   14,   1901).     (Comparative 
living  measurements  of  natives  of  Alaska). 
ALES  HRDLICKA 

Contribution  to  the  Anthropology  of  the  Central  and  Smith  Sound  Eskimo 
(Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Vol.   V, 
Part  II).     (Intensive  study  of  Southampton  island   crania,  also  measure 
ments  of  Smith  sound  Eskimo.) 
DUCKWORTH  AND  PAIN 

Contribution  to  Eskimo  Craniology  (Journal  of  Anthropological  Institute, 
Vol.  30,  1910).  (Valuable  outline  of  Eskimo  cranial  characteristics  and 
variation  between  head  and  skull  measurements.) 


244  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  18,  1916 

ARTHUR  THOMPSON 

A  Consideration  of  Some  of  the  More  Important  Factors  Concerned  in  the 
Production  of  Man's  Cranial  Form  (Journal  Anthropological  Institute,  1903). 
(Includes  formulation  of  mandibular  and  coronoid  indices.) 
F.  H.  S.  KNOWLES 

The  Glenoid  Fossa  in  the  Skull  of  the  Eskimo  (Museum  Bulletin  No.  9,  Canadian 
Geological  Survey).     (Suggestive  study  of  the  relation  of  food  to  the  shallow- 
ness  of  the  Glenoid  Fossa.) 
A.  H.  THOMPSON 

The  Ethnology  of  the  Teeth  (Chicago  Dental  Society).     (Study  of  the  char 
acteristics  of  the  teeth  in  primitive  races.) 
D.  J.  CUNNINGHAM 

Lumbar  Curve  in  Man  and  the  Apes  (Royal  Irish  Academy,  1886).     (Methods 

of  working  out  lumbar  curve,  and  comparative  tables.) 
FRANK  RUSSELL 

Explorations  in  the  Far  North  (University  of  Iowa,  1898).     (Mackenzie  River 

Eskimo  Crania.) 
STEFANSSON-ANDERSON  EXPEDITION. 

Anthropological  Papers  Amer.  Mus.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  XIV,  Pt.  I,  1914. 
GEORGE  L.  OTIS 

List  of  Specimens  in  the  Anatomical  Section  of  the  U.  S.  A.  Medical  Museum, 

1880. 
SIR  WILLIAM  TURNER 

Report  on  the  Human  Skeleton  (Challenger  Reports,  Vol.  XVI,  Pt.  47). 
(Valuable  comparison  of  anatomical  features  of  various  races,  including 
Eskimo.) 

Ibid.,  Vol.  X  (Craniology,  including  the  Eskimo). 
W.  ARBUTHNOT  LANE 

Some  Variations  in  the  Human  Skeleton  (Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
Vol.    20,    Third    Part).     (Description   of   occurrence   of   thirteenth    dorsal 
vertebra.) 
D.  S.  LAMB 

The  Olecranon  Perforation  (American  Anthropologist,  Vol.  Ill,  1890). 
W.  H.  FLOWER  AND  J.  C.  GARSON 

Scapular  Index  as  a  Race  Character  in  Man  (Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physi 
ology,  Vol.  14,  Part  i). 

WISTAR  INSTITUTE, 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


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